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Learning Theory Summary CI 512.202 Behaviorist Theory 1) What is learning? Behaviorist are not concerned with how new knowledge is acquired. Instead they are interested in how new behavior is acquired. Therefore, learning is a process of expanding the behavioral repertoire, not a matter of expanding the ideas in the learner’s mind. (Phillips and Sotis, 23) 2) How do we learn? -classical conditioning: replacing a natural stimulus for a preexisting reflex with a conditioned stimulus over time. -operant conditioning: eliciting any response through any stimulus (natural or not) provided that the response is rewarded and reinforced frequently. 3) What is the role of the learner? In the learning theory of behaviorism, the learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. Behaviors that are reinforced are sustained and behaviors that are punished become less frequent until they become extinct. 4) What is the role of the teacher? The role of the teacher is to reinforce behaviors that demonstrate the student is learning and extinguish disruptive or counter-productive behavior. Reinforcement in the classroom would usually take the form of praise. Learning can be encouraged without having to reward each instance of desirable behavior. The teacher needs to break large tasks down into small manageable pieces and give clear instructions. 5) What type of learning activities would we see in the classroom? In a behaviorist school setting the students would be given tasks with a desired set of preordained outcomes. When the teacher gets the desired response the students should have this response reinforced through reward. Given time and consistent reinforcement, the desired responses from the students should become conditioned within them. 6) What are the criticism of this theory? Behaviorism doesn’t take into account the things that cannot be observed directly, it does not explain how moods, feelings and internal events have effects on learning. Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning; especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcements or punishments. Another major criticism is that People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement. Key Vocab -Unconditioned stimulus -Conditioned stimulus -Unconditioned response -Conditioned response -Positive reinforcement -Negative reinforcement (not a form of punishment) -Positive punishment -Negative punishment -Extinction Gestalt Theory -Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka and Max Wertheimer Gestalt Theory -Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka and Max Wertheimer *What does it mean to Learn?* To learn is to have that moment of insight which connects distinct parts into a functional whole. *How do we learn? * According to the Gestalt theory, we learn and experience the world through meaningful patterns or organized wholes. Learning takes place as we respond to meanings, make intellectual connections and achieving insight, and by coming to "see" the various links between ideas and perceptions. *What is the role of the learner?* Active - Passive Learner may be 'passive' in the moment of insight. Or learner may be active in pursuing the connections and understanding the 'whole'. [Hide Quoted Text] *What is the role of the teacher?* Authority/Director Facilitator/Guide - Consultant The teacher is aware that the learner comes to the learning experience with prior knowledge. It is the responsibility of the teacher to teach material in way that is applicable as means to connect to the learner's prior and future experience. Create 'spaces' for the learner to think and rteflect. *What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom?* The learning activities that would be seen are: problem solving and group activities, that involve critical thinking and collaboration. Learning activities should be based on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the development of insight. *What are the ‘buzz words’ – key terminology – associated with the theory?* The buzz words, or key terminology, associated with Gestalt theory include insight, connection, "ah-ha! moment," seeing, organization, wholeness, problem solving, activity, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts(re: Dewey -- cf. Phillips and Soltis, Ch. 4). *What do the critics say?* * * The main criticisms of Gestalt theory are that it fails to explore the precise activity going on in the mind, and that it talks about learning in terms of subjective feelings rather than objective, observable behavior. Cognitivism Jerome Bruner, Joseph Schwab 2. What does it mean to Learn? (Ian) For cognitivists, learning is the act of making meaningful connections to material, first by understanding the structure of the discipline from which the material comes and then storing it in a way that relates it to previous knowledge. Analogies to a computer can be made, with information stored in the brain with an indexed location and many cross-references to create a complex network. Phillips and Soltis quote a cognitive science text to illuminate this computer analogy: “Computers take symbolic input, make decisions about the recorded input, make new expressions from it, store some or all of the input, and give back symbolic input. By analogy, that is moist of what cognitive psychology is about.” (66). 3. How do we learn? (Lauren) According to cognitivists, we learn by using logic to build upon previous knowledge. We have central concepts, take in new information, use logic to change or add to our concepts, and test our newly formed concepts against experience. 4. What is the role of the learner? Active - Passive (Dawn) Cognitivists see the brain as an information processor: information comes in, the learner thinks about it, processes it according to his or her own schemata, and then behave accordingly. All learning is done by the learner applying his or her schemata to help define and understand the various information he or she processes. 5. What is the role of the teacher? Authority/Director - Facilitator/Guide Consultant (Amanda) The teacher’s role would be a facilitator/guide in so far as the teacher facilitates the mechanics of allowing the student to absorb and process information. It is the teacher’s job to present the student with “advanced organizers,” or basic ideas about the subject, and help the student make mental connections about new ideas as well as connect these new ideas to what the student already knows. 6. What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? (Lyndsay) They recognize the significance of prior knowledge and ways of categorizing new information based on this prior knowledge. For example, in a Biology class, students could be broken up into groups and each group given a box of everyday items and asked to categorize them. Each group would come up with different groups of objects and then explain why they had categorized objects as they did. 7. What are the buzzwords? (All) problem solving, insight, activity, schemata, schema, information processing, symbol manipulation, concept, logic, 8. What do the critics say? (Ian) Criticism of this approach has been focused on both the “‘affective factors,’ such things as interest, motivation, and emotion” and on selfconcept, both elements of the learning equation that computers lack (71-72). The limitation of a cognitive science approach may be that it has too much interest in the mechanical elements of learning and fails to take into account the intangible qualities of human thought. Critics argue that in this model, learners are still seen as passive computerlike information processors and not active participators in their environment. Psychological Constructivism 1. Name of Theory and Key Theorists: Psychological constructivism is a learning theory developed in the early 20th century by Jean Piaget. It claims that learners “build” their own knowledge in stages through the processes of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium. 2. What does it mean to Learn?: Psychological Constructivism defines learning as a process that improves individual knowledge and cognitive ability. This theoretical approach says that each individual is born with certain mental mechanisms that facilitate the construction of knowledge throughout a lifetime. Piaget associated the act of learning with the creation of cognitive structures that enable an individual to create a “schema” for various activities or behaviors. Through interaction with various stimuli we encounter different experiences that allow for acquisition of knowledge, if an experience is familiar then it will be assimilated into previously developed cognitive structures. However, if the experience is new the learner then enters a state of disequilibrium in which a change or addition will be made to a cognitive structure in order to accommodate the knowledge gained. The meaning of learning is thus a psychological process in which the brain goes through phases of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium, which allow for the creation and application of new knowledge. 3. How do we learn? - we learn through developing structures - structures or schema are ways in which we categorize knowledge to help us interpret and understand the world - when we receive information, it will either be assimilated into our schema -or- it will not fit into one of our existing schemas and will then throw off our equilibrium; we then have to struggle and rework our schema to fit this new knowledge; this occurs until we find equilibrium once again and our schema has developed - through these cycles, little by little our cognitive structures or schemas will grow and develop 4. What is the role of the learner? Active - Passive: In Psychological constructivism the role of the active learner involves exploring their environment and, through the manipulation of their surroundings, develop sets of "operations" these are essentially like programs the learner develops based on what is successful or not in these explorations. Since we are discussing high school aged learners, in Piaget's model this is the formal operational stage, this means that in terms of the role of the learner they are also using abstract thought that is they are able to develop these operations solely in their minds because of this they are able to consider multiple outcomes and consequences. As a result the high school learner is able to plan organized approaches to problems rather than just going about them by trial and error. 5. What is the role of the teacher? Facilitator/Guide The teacher: -Guides students to make their own discoveries about the world and build their own structures. -Exposes the learner to new and varied experiences to contribute to the development of structures. -Presents students with interesting or relevant problems in which they can actively engage. -Encourages active inquiry rather than passive learning. -Provides students with ample time to reflect. 6. What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? -Exposure of the learner to new experiences, problems, vocabulary, etc. with time to reflect. -Students permitted to explore the classroom/objects/teaching materials and accommodate/assimilate their schema as needed. 7. What are the ‘buzz words’ – key terminology – associated with the theory? - structure or schema: ways in which we categorize knowledge to help us interpret and understand the world - assimilation: receiving the external information and putting it into our schema without having to change the existing schema - accommodation: receiving external information and putting it into our schema, but having to change and rearrange our schema in order to do so - equilibrium / equilibration: the process whereby an individual assimilates and accommodates external information so as to relieve the tension between the cognitive structures and the environment - disequilibrium / disequilibration: the state in which the external data in the environment does not "fit into" the internal structures and schemas that one already has formed 8. What do the critics say?: Critics of psychological constructivism point out that although Piaget credibly names the (unobservable) psychological constructs that produce learning, he still does not explain them. If new information needs to recognized as conflicting with our current understanding of reality in order for it to undergo accommodation, then what mechanism is doing the recognizing of the problem? Also, critics claim that psychological constructivism focuses too exclusively on the individual learner and not on the social aspects of learning. Social Constructivism: Dewey, Vygotsky 1. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Name of Theory and Key Theorists ● Social Constructivism: Dewey, Vygotsky 2. What does it mean to Learn? ● The acquisition of socially generated knowledge, meaning and “psychological tools” (e.g. language, numbers, ideas, schema, logic) from others, primarily through social activities such as communication, imitation (modeling), and participation. ● “His responses grow intelligent, or gain meaning, simply because he lives and acts in a medium of accepted meanings and values. Through social intercourse, through sharing in the activities embodying beliefs, he gradually acquires a mind of his own.” - John (I said it first and I said it best) Dewey 3. How do we learn? ● According to the social constructivist theory we learn through interaction with others. ● We learn when we are given, or seek out social resources to help answer a question. ● Key factor in social learning is the ability to learn by imitation. ● We learn through social intercourse and sharing in activities that embody the beliefs of our culture, meaning is often socially constructed. 4. What is the role of the learner? Active - Passive ● Learner is an active member of a social community, learning through natural “situations,” examining questions that relate to real world problems in their community. ● Learning through the help of others, the learner can also take a somewhat passive role: “The self is not a separate mind building up knowledge anew on its own account.” Dewey ● The ability to learn by imitation will be a key factor in their ability to learn. Each learner also has a different “zone of potential development” which affects learning outside of IQ. 5. Consultant • ● What is the role of the teacher? Authority/Director - Facilitator/Guide Provide conditions that stimulate thinking while taking a sympathetic attitude. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ● Participate in common or joint experiences with the learner. Just telling them is not very effective. ● Facilitate group work. ● Model good learning habits to inform students how to do it. ● Model good communication skills again so students can replicate/imitate. ● Create a culture of learning. Allows students to feel like learning is cool. 6. What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? ● Activities involve interaction between teacher and student or between students. ● Teacher demonstrates, or “models,” an action or application of a principle; students practice the new behavior through imitation. ● Students work in groups, sharing the learning experience with each other. ● Questions/answers and other forms of discussion are shared between teacher and/or students. 7. ● ● ● ● ● ● What are the ‘buzz words’ – key terminology – associated with the theory? Zone of potential (proximal) development Modeling Situated cognition Situated learning Legitimate peripheral participation Psychological tools 8. What do the critics say? ● Learning is situated in the individual (Piaget) ● Learning is as much an individual as it is an socvial process; the worlds are “intertwined.” Critical Pedagogy This theory is called Critical Pedagogy. Paulo Freire is the key figure of this theory. Other founders of critical pedagogy are Samuel Bowles, Herbert Gintis and Miles Horton. What does it mean to learn? Learning is inseparable from teaching and inherently political. It is a dialectical process. To learn is to know. Knowing is not a question of memorization, but a reinvention of the object being known. How do we learn? We learn and bridge new knowledge from knowledge we already know. Learning is a constant reworking of concepts and meaning. Concurrently, comprehension is not sudden and not the result of absorbing immobile subject matter. Learning requires study and constant patience. According to Freier, ?...studying is a preparation for knowing; it is a patient and impatient exercise on the part of someone whose intent is not to know it all at once but to struggle to meet the timing of knowledge? (Pedagogy of the Oppressed, page 23). Successful learning is mindful of our world, our understanding and our reflection. What is the role of the learner? Active - Passive According to Friere, "kids already read the world," Critical Pedagogy 87. It is their duty to, "react against the bureaucratization of the mind so that you can continue to be human." Critical Pedagogy 88. According to Mark K. Smith, his approach to curriculum is based and entails transforming the settings into a particular type of pedagogical space. Educators need to look for teachable moments, "but when we concentrate on this we can easily overlook simple power of being in conversation with others. Freirian education borrows methods from various other therorists. Smith, M. K. (1997, 2002) 'Paulo Freire and informal education', the encyclopaedia of informal education. [www.infed.org/thinkers/et-freir.htm. Last update: November 04, 2009] What is the role of the teacher? Authority/Director - Facilitator/Guide - Consultant The role of the teacher is that of both co-learner and co-teacher. Rallying against the ?banking? concept of education, in which ?knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing,? Freire instead asserts that ?education must begin with the solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers and students? (Pedagogy of the Oppressed, p. 72). What characterizes the learning activities that would be seen in the classroom? A classroom that uses the theories of Freire?s Critical Pedagogy would be active and engaging. Some of the general characteristics of these activities or projects would involve rich dialogue and group sharing activities. Cross discipline teaching would be utilized to broaden understanding. For example, in a class in economics while talking about global trade, stories from any students who have traveled or are from abroad could open up opportunities to learn new language, culture, idea or history. Then the teacher could tie some of the sharing back to the bigger picture of global economic, the costs, benefits, etc. Student centered structure with units and content relevant to greater goals that are personal to students. What are the ?buzz words? ? key terminology ? associated with the theory? rejection of ?banking? concept of education ?Culture of Silence? ?Codification,? ?Humanization,? ?Conscientization? oppressor vs. oppressed reciprocity the student-teacher and the teacher-student naming emancipatory dialogics vs antidialogics reflection + action = praxis (too much reflection = verbalism; too much action = activism) What do the critics say? Critics of Freire?s theories feel that his applications are from an extreme form of poverty and oppression that is unique to his time and place. Oppression and impoverishment are more subtle in developed nations. Another criticism is that Freire creates an illusion of equity amongst the oppressed, meaning that not all oppressed people have the same idea of liberation and that some of the oppressed move on to oppress.