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BRIEF CONTENTS Preface Introduction 1 Introduction to Planet "Earth" 3 2 Tectonics and the Ocean 3 Marine Provinces 75 4 Marine Sediments 97 5 Water and Seawater 129 6 Air-Sea Interaction 7 Ocean Circulation 197 8 Waves and Water Dynamics 235 9 Tides 35 10 The Coast: Beaches and Shoreline Processes 291 11 The Coastal Ocean 319 12 Marine Life and the Marine Environment 359 13 Biological Productivity and Energy Transfer 14 Animals of the Pelagic Environment Animals of the Benthic Environment 457 16 The Oceans and Climate Change 491 Afterword Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix I and English Units 530 II Locations 534 III and on Earth IV A Chemical Background: Water Has 2 H's and 1 0 539 V Careers in Oceanography 543 Glossary 547 Credits and Trujillo, Alan P. Essentials of oceanography 2014 digitalisiert durch: IDS Basel Bern CONTENTS Preface xii To the Student xii To the Instructor xii New in This Edition? xiii For the Student xiv For the Instructor xv xv INTRODUCTION Oceanography? How Are Earth's Oceans xxviii What Rational Of Technology? xxix o 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PLANET "EARTH" 3 E S S E N T I A L CONCEPTS 3 How Many Oceans Earth? 4 TECTONICS AND THE OCEAN The Four Principal Oceans, Plus One 4 • Oceans versus Seas: What Are the Seven Seas? 5 _. 35 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 3 5 How Was Exploration Of the Oceans Acmeved? 7 7 DIVING DEEPER 1.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE How Do Sailors They Are At Sea?: From Stick Charts to Satellites 8 The Middle Ages 10 . The Age Of Discovery in Europe Beginning Of Voyaging for Science 12 History Of To Be Continued 13 1.3 2.1 . The What the Nature Of Scientific Inquiry? 13 Observations 14 • Hypothesis 14 • Testing 14 • Theory 15 . Theories and the Truth How Were Earth and the Solar System The Nebular Hypothesis 16 • Protoearth 17 • Density and Density 18 • Earth's Internal Structure 19 1.5 How Were Earth's and Oceans Formed? 22 Origin Of Earth's Atmosphere 22 • Origin Of Earth's Oceans 22 1.6 Did Life Begin in the Oceans? 23 The Importance Of Oxygen to Life 23 . Stanley Millers Experiment 24 • Evolution and Natural Selection 25 • Plants and Animals Evolve 25 DIVING DEEPER 1.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE The Voyage Of HMS How Shaped Charles Darwin's Thinking About the Theory Of Evolution 28 1.7 How Earth? 29 Age Dating 29 . The Essential Concepts Review 31 vi Time Scale 29 Continental Drift? 36 Of the Continents Matching Sequences Of Rocks and Mountain Chains 36 • Glacial Ages and Other Evidence 37 • Distribution Of Organisms Objections to the Continental Drift Model 39 2.2 What Evidence Supports Tectonics? 40 Earth's Magnetic and 40 DIVING DEEPER 2.1 RESEARCH METHODS OCEANOGRAPHY Do Sea Turtles (and Other Animals) Use Earth's Magnetic Field for Navigation? 43 Sea Spreading and Features Of the Ocean Basins 44 • Other Evidence from the Ocean Basins 46 • The Acceptance Of a Theory 48 2.3 What Features Occur at Plate 50 Divergent Boundary Features 51 • Convergent Boundary Features 55 • Transform Boundary Features 59 2.4 Testing the Model: What Are Some Applications Of Plate Tectonics? 60 Hotspots and Mantle 60 • Seamounts and 63 • Reef Development 63 . Detecting Plate Motion with Satellites 65 2.5 How Has Earth Changed in the Past, and How Will it Look in the Future? 66 The Past: Paleogeography 66 . The Future: Some Bold 2.6 How Can Plate Tectonics Be Used As A Working Model? 68 DIVING DEEPER 2.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE Ophiolites: A Gift From the Sea Floor to the Bronze Age 70 Essential Concepts Review 72 67 Contents © 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 MARINE PROVINCES 75 MARINE SEDIMENTS 97 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 97 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 75 What Techniques Are Used to Determine Ocean 75 Soundings 75 • Echo Soundings 76 • Satellites to Map Ocean Properties from Space 78 • Seismic Reflection Profiles 79 What Features Exist on Continental Margins? 80 Passive versus Active Continental Margins 80 • Continental 81 • Continental 82 • Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents 82 • Continental Rise 84 What Features Exist in the Deep-Ocean Basins? 85 Abyssal Plains 85 • the Abyssal Plains Ocean Trenches and Volcanic 86 What Features Exist Volcanic Features 88 vii the Mid-Ocean Ridge? 88 DIVING DEEPER 3.1 RESEARCH METHODS 4.1 4.2 4.3 How Are Marine Sediments Collected, and What Historical Events Do they Reveal? 98 Collecting Marine Sediments 99 • Environmental Conditions Revealed by Marine Sediments 100 • Paleoceanography 100 What Are the Characteristics Of Lithogenous Sediment? 101 Origin Of Lithogenous Sediment 101 • Composition Of Lithogenous Sediment 103 • Sediment Texture 103 • Distribution Lithogenous Sediment 104 What Are the Characteristics Of Biogenous Sediment? 106 Origin Of Biogenous Sediment 106 • Composition Of Biogenous Sediment 107 DIVING DEEPER 4.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Diatoms: The Most Things You Have (Probably) Never Heard Of 108 OCEANOGRAPHY Earth's Of Biogenous Sediment Hypsographic Curve: Nearly Everything You Need to Know About Earth's Oceans and One Graph 89 Hydrothermal Vents 90 • Fracture Zones and Transform Faults 91 DIVING DEEPER 3.2 RESEARCH METHODS OCEANOGRAPHY Now You See it, Now You Recovering Oceanographic Stuck Oceanic Islands 94 Essential Concepts Review 94 characteristics Of Hydrogenous Sediment? 114 o f Hydrogenous Sediment 114 . Composition and Distribution Of Hydrogenous Sediment 4.5 what Are the Characteristics Of Sediment? Composition, and Distribution Of Cosmogenous Sediment 117 How Are Pelagic and Neritic Deposits Distributed? 118 Marine Sediment • Neritic Deposits 119 Deposits 119 • How Sea Floor Sediments Represent Surface Conditions 120 • Worldwide Thickness Of Marine Sediments 121 4.7 What Resources Do Marine Sediments Provide? 122 Energy Resources 122 • Other Resources 123 Essential Concepts Review 126 WATER SEAWATER 129 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 129 5.1 Why Does Water Have Such Unusual Chemical Properties? 129 Structure 129 • The Water 5.2 130 What Other Important Properties Does Water Possess? 132 Water's Thermal Properties 132 • Water Density 137 5.3 How Seawater? 139 Salinity 139 • Determining Salinity 140 DIVING DEEPER 5.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE How to Avoid Goiters 141 Comparing Pure Water and Seawater 142 5.4 Why Does Seawater Salinity Vary? 143 Salinity Variations 143 • Processes Seawater Salinity 144 • Dissolved Components Added to and Removed from Seawater 146 5.5 Seawater Acidic or Basic? 148 The pH Scale 148 • The Carbonate Buffering System 149 5.6 How Does Seawater Salinity Vary at the Surface and With Depth? 151 Surface Salinity Variation 151 • Salinity Variation with Depth 152 • Halocline 153 6.6 How Do Sea and Icebergs Form? 189 Formation Of Sea Ice 189 • Formation Of Icebergs 190 6.7 Can Power from Wind Be Harnessed as a Source Of Energy? Essential Concepts Review 193 OCEAN CIRCULATION 197 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 197 7.1 How Are Ocean Currents Measured? 197 Surface Current Measurement 198 DIVING DEEPER 7.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Running Shoes as Drift Meters: Just Do 199 Deep Current Measurement 200 7.2 How Are Ocean Surface Currents Organized? 201 Origin Of Surface Currents 201 • Main Components Of Ocean Surface 202 • Other Factors Affecting Ocean Surface Circulation 204 • Ocean Currents and Climate 208 5.7 5.8 Does Seawater Density With Depth? 153 Diverging Surface Water 210 . Converging Surface Water 210 • Upwelling and Downwelling 210 . Other Causes Of to Seawater? 156 Distillation 157 . Membrane Processes 157 . Other Methods Of Upwelling Desalination 158 Essential Concepts Review o 6.1 6.2 163 163 What Causes Variations in Solar Radiation on Earth? 164 What Causes Earth's Seasons? 164 . How Latitude Affects the Distribution Of Solar Radiation 165 • Oceanic Heat Flow 166 Circulation Patterns in Each Ocean Basin? 212 Antarctic Circulation 212 • Atlantic Ocean Circulation 213 DIVING DEEPER 7.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE Benjamin Franklin: The World's Most Physical Oceanographer 216 Indian Ocean Circulation 217 • Pacific Ocean Circulation 219 Deep-Ocean Exist? 226 Origin Of Circulation 226 . Sources Of Deep Worldwide Deep-Water Circulation 227 7.6 Can Power from Currents Be Harnessed as A Source Of Energy? 229 Essential Concepts Review 230 What Physical Properties Does the Atmosphere Possess? 167 Composition Of Atmosphere 167 • Temperature Variation in the Atmosphere 167 . Density Variation in the Atmosphere 168 . Water Vapor Content 168 . Pressure 168 • Movement Of the Atmosphere 169 • An A Nonspinning Earth 169 6.3 What Causes Upwelling and Downwelling? 210 Factors Affecting Seawater Density 153 and Density Variation with Depth 154 . Thermocline and Pycnocline 155 H WAVES AND WATER DYNAMICS 235 235 8.1 How Are Waves Generated, and How Do They Move? 235 How Does the Coriolis Effect Influence Moving Objects? 170 Disturbances Generate Ocean Waves 235 • Wave Movement 236 what Characteristics Do Waves Possess? 238 Example 1: Perspectives and Frames Of Reference on a Merry-GoRound 170 • Example 2: A Tale Of Two Missiles 171 • Changes in the Coriolis Effect with Latitude 172 6.4 What Global Atmospheric Circulation Patterns Exist? 173 Circulation Cells 173 . Pressure 173 . Wind 174 . Boundaries 175 • Circulation Cells: Idealized or Real? 176 6.5 Terminology 238 . Circular Orbital Motion 238 • DeepWater Waves 240 • Waves 241 • Transitional Waves 241 How Do Wind-Generated Waves Develop? 242 Development 242 . Interference Patterns 246 Rogue Waves 247 Weather and Climate Patterns Occur in the Oceans? 177 change in the Surf Zone? 248 Weather versus Climate 177 . Winds 177 DIVING DEEPER 6.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE Why Christopher Never Set Foot on North America 178 and Fronts 179 • Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes) 179 • The Oceans Climate Patterns 187 Physical Changes as Waves Approach Shore 248 • Breakers and Surfing 249 . Wave Refraction 250 Wave Reflection 252 8.5 How Are Tsunami Created? 253 Coastal Effects 255 • Some Tsunami 255 Of and Contents 9.6 Can ix Power Be Harnessed as a Source Of Energy? 285 Power Plants 286 Essential Concepts Review 288 THE COAST: BEACHES AND SHORELINE PROCESSES 291 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 291 10.1 How Are Coastal Regions Defined? 291 Beach 291 • Composition 292 10.2 How Does Sand Move on the Beach? 293 Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline 293 • Movement Parallel to the Shoreline 293 10.3 What Features Exist Erosional and Depositional Shores? 295 Features Of Erosional Shores 295 DIVING DEEPER 10.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Warning: Rip Currents . . . Do You What to Do? 297 Features Of Depositional Shores 297 10.4 How Do Changes in Sea Level Produce Emerging and Submerging Shorelines? 304 Features Of Emerging Shorelines 304 • Features Of Submerging Shorelines 304 • Changes in Sea Level 304 10.5 What Characteristics Do U.S. Coasts Exhibit? 307 DIVING DEEPER 8.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Waves Of Destruction: The Japanese Tsunami 259 ., Tsunami Warning System 260 8.6 9.3 9.4 . THE COASTAL OCEAN 319 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 319 267 ESSENTIALCONCEPTS 267 Causes Tides? 267 Tide-Generating Forces 267 . Tidal Bulges: The Effect 270 Tidal Bulges: The Effect 271 . Earth's Rotation the Tides 272 9.2 Groins and Groin Fields 310 • Jetties 312 • Breakwaters 312 • 314 261 • Global Coastal Wave Essential Concepts Review 264 o The Pacific Coast 309 10.6 How Does Hard Stabilization Affect Coastlines? 310 Can Power from Waves Be Harnessed as a Source Of Energy? 261 Wave Power Plants and Wave Energy Resources 263 9.1 The Atlantic Coast 307. How Do Tides Vary During a Monthly Tidal Cycle? 273 The Monthly Tidal Cycle 273 • Complicating Factors 274 . Idealized Tide Prediction 276 What Do Tides Look Like in the Ocean? 277 Points and Cotidal Lines 277 . Effect Of the Continents 277 • Other Considerations 278 What Types Of Tidal Patterns Exist? 279 Diurnal Tidal Pattern 279 • Semidiurnal Tidal Pattern 280 • Mixed Tidal Pattern 280 9.5 Tidal Occur in Coastal Regions? 280 DIVING DEEPER 9.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Tidal Bores: Boring Waves These Are Not! 281 An Example Of Tidal Extremes: The Bay Of Fundy 282 . Coastal Tidal Currents 282 . Whirlpools: Fact or Fiction? 283 . Grunion: Doing What Naturally on the Beach 283 11.1 What Ocean Ownership? 320 Liberum and the Territorial Sea 324 . Law Of the Sea 320 What Characteristics Do Coastal Waters Exhibit? 322 Salinity 323 Temperature 323 . Coastal Geostrophic Currents 324 11.3 What Types Of Coastal Waters Exist? 325 Estuaries 325 Lagoons 329 . Marginal Seas 330 What Issues Face Coastal Wetlands? 332 Types Of Coastal Wetlands 332 • Characteristics Of Coastal Wetlands 334 . Serious Loss Of Valuable Wetlands 334 What Pollution? 335 Marine Pollution: A Definition 335 • Environmental Bioassay 336 • The Of Waste Disposal in the Ocean 336 What Are the Main Types Of Marine Pollution? 337 Petroleum 337 DIVING DEEPER 11.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT The 2010 Mexico Deepwater Horizon Spill 340 Of Sewage Sludge 344 • DDT and PCBs 345 • Mercury and Minamata Disease 346 . Nonpoint Source Pollution and Trash 349 Biological Pollution: Non-Native Species 353 Essential Concepts Review 354 x Contents © MARINE THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY AND ENERGY TRANSFER 387 ENVIRONMENT ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS359 359 12.1 What Are Living Things, and How Are They Classified? 359 A Definition Of Life 359 • The Three Domains Of Life 360 • The Five Kingdoms Of Organisms 361 • Linnaeus and Taxonomic Classification 362 12.2 How Are Marine Organisms Classified? 363 Plankton (Drifters) 364 • Nekton (Swimmers) 365 • Benthos (Bottom Dwellers) 366 12.3 How Many Marine Species Exist? 367 Why Are There So Few Marine Species? 368 • Species in and Benthic Environments 368 12.4 How Are Marine Organisms Adapted for the Physical Conditions Of the Ocean? 369 Need for Physical Support 369 • Waters Viscosity 370 • Temperature 371 • Salinity 373 • Dissolved Gases 375 • High Transparency 376 • Pressure 378 DIVING DEEPER 12.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE Diving into the Marine Environment 379 12.5 What Are the Main Divisions Of the Marine Environment? 379 Pelagic (Open Sea) Environment 380 . Benthic (Sea Bottom) Environment 382 Essential Concepts Review 384 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 387 13.1 Productivity? 387 Measurement Of Primary Productivity 388 • Factors Affecting Primary Productivity 388 • Light Transmission in Ocean Water 390 • Why Are the Margins Of the Oceans So in Life? 392 13.2 What Kinds Of Photosynthetic Marine Organisms Exist? 395 Seed-Bearing Plants (Anthophyta) 395 • (Large) 395 • 397 • Ocean Eutrophication and Dead Zones 400 • Photosynthetic Bacteria 401 How Does Regional Primary Productivity Vary? 403 Productivity in Polar (High Latitude) Oceans 404 • Productivity in Tropical Oceans 405 • Productivity in Middle Latitude (Temperate) Oceans 405 • Comparing Regional Productivity 407 13.4 How Are Energy and Nutrients Passed in Marine 407 Flow Of Energy in Marine Ecosystems 408 • Flow Of Nutrients in Marine Ecosystems 408 . Feeding Relationships 409 13.5 What Affect Marine Fisheries? 413 Ecosystems and Fisheries 413 . 413 DIVING DEEPER 13.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Fishing Down the Food Web: Seeing Believing 415 Incidental Catch 416 • Fisheries Management 417 • Seafood Choices 420 Essential Concepts Review 421 ANIMALS OF THE PELAGIC ENVIRONMENT 425 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 425 14.1 How Are Marine Organisms Floor? 425 to Stay Above the Ocean Use Of Gas Containers 425 • Ability to 426 Ability to 427 . The Diversity Of Planktonic Animals 427 14.2 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess for Seeking Prey? 432 Mobility: Lungers versus Cruisers 432 • Swimming Speed 432 DIVING DEEPER 14.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Some Myths (and Facts) About Sharks 433 versus Organisms 434 • Adaptations Nekton 434 14.3 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess to Avoid Being Prey? 436 Schooling 436 • 437 • Other Adaptations 437 14.4 What Characteristics Do Marine Possess? 438 Characteristics 439 Order Carnivora 440 • Order Sirenia 441 • Order Cetacea 444 14.5 An Example Of Migration: Why Do Gray Whales Migrate? 451 Migration Route . Reasons for Migration • Of Migration 452 . Are Gray Whales an Endangered Species? 452 Whaling and the International Whaling 453 Essential Concepts Review 454 Contents xi © THE OCEANS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 491 ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 491 16.1 What Earth's Climate System? 491 16.2 Earth's Recent Climate Change: Human Influence? 493 Natural or Caused by Determining Earth's Past Climate: Proxy Data and Paleoclimatology 494 • Natural Causes Of Climate Change 494 • The Documenting Human-Caused Climate Change 498 16.3 What Causes the Atmosphere's Greenhouse Effect? 500 Earth's Heat Budget and Changes in Wavelength 501 • Which Gases Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? 501 • What Documented Changes Are Occurring Because Of Global Warming? 505 16.4 What Changes Are Occurring in the Oceans as a Result Of Global Warming? 507 Increasing Ocean Temperatures 507 DIVING DEEPER 16.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT The ATOC Experiment: SOFAR So Good? 508 Increasing Hurricane Activity 509 • Changes in Deep-Water Circulation 509 • Melting Of Polar Ice 510 • Recent Increase in Ocean Acidity 512 • Rising Sea Level • Other Predicted and Observed Changes 516 16.5 What Should Be Done to Reduce Greenhouse © Gases? 518 A N I M A L S OF THE BENTHIC ENVIRONMENT 15.1 What Warming 457 457 Exist Reducing Greenhouse Gases 520 • The Kyoto Protocol: Greenhouse Gas Emissions 521 Rocky Shores? 457 Intertidal Zonation 458 • The Spray (Supratidal) Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 459 • The High Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 462 . The Middle Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 462 . The Low Tide Zone: Organisms and Their Adaptations 464 15.2 What Communities Exist along Shores? 465 Physical Environment Of the Sediment 465 • Intertidal Zonation 465 • Sandy Beaches: Organisms and Their Adaptations 466 • Mud Fiats: Organisms and Their Adaptations 468 What Communities Exist on the Shallow Offshore Ocean Floor? 468 Rocky Bottoms (Subtidal): Organisms and Their Adaptations 468 . Reefs: Organisms and Their Adaptations 471 15.4 What Communities Exist on the Deep-Ocean Floor? 477 The Physical Environment 478 Food Sources and Species 478 DIVING DEEPER 15.1 RESEARCH METHODS OCEANOGRAPHY How Long Your on the Sea Floor? 479 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Adaptations 479 • Low-Temperature Seep Biocommunities: Organisms and Their Adaptations 484 . The Deep Biosphere: A New Frontier 486 Essential Concepts Review 487 . Possibilities Afterword 526 What Are Marine Protected Areas? 527 Can I Do? 528 DIVING DEEPER AFT.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Ten Simple Things You Can Do to Help Prevent Marine Pollution 529 Appendix I and English Units Appendix II Locations 530 534 Appendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth 536 Appendix IV A Chemical Why Water Has 2 H's Appendix V Careers in Oceanography 543 DIVING DEEPER A5.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Report from a Student/Oceanographer 545 Glossary 547 Credits and 565