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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
1
Introduction to Planet "Earth" 3
2
Tectonics and the Ocean
3
Marine Provinces 75
4
Marine Sediments 97
5
Water and Seawater 129
6
Air-Sea Interaction
7
Ocean Circulation 197
8
Waves and Water Dynamics 235
9
Tides
35
10
The Coast: Beaches and Shoreline Processes 291
11
The Coastal Ocean 319
12
Marine Life and the Marine Environment 359
13
Biological Productivity and Energy Transfer
14
Animals of the Pelagic Environment
Animals of the Benthic Environment 457
16
The Oceans and Climate Change 491
Afterword
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
I
and English Units
530
II
Locations 534
III
and
on Earth
IV A Chemical Background:
Water Has 2 H's and 1 0 539
V Careers in Oceanography 543
Glossary 547
Credits and
Trujillo, Alan P.
Essentials of oceanography
2014
digitalisiert durch:
IDS Basel Bern
CONTENTS
Preface xii
To the Student xii
To the Instructor xii
New in This Edition? xiii
For the Student xiv
For the Instructor xv
xv
INTRODUCTION
Oceanography?
How Are Earth's Oceans
xxviii
What Rational
Of Technology? xxix
o
1.1
INTRODUCTION TO PLANET
"EARTH" 3
E S S E N T I A L CONCEPTS 3
How Many Oceans
Earth? 4
TECTONICS AND THE OCEAN
The Four Principal Oceans, Plus One 4 • Oceans versus Seas:
What Are the Seven Seas? 5
_.
35
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 3 5
How Was
Exploration Of the Oceans Acmeved? 7
7
DIVING DEEPER 1.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE How Do Sailors
They Are At Sea?: From Stick Charts to Satellites 8
The Middle Ages 10 . The Age Of Discovery in Europe
Beginning Of Voyaging for Science 12 History Of
To Be Continued 13
1.3
2.1
. The
What the Nature Of Scientific Inquiry? 13
Observations 14 • Hypothesis 14 • Testing 14 • Theory 15 .
Theories and the Truth
How Were Earth and the Solar System
The Nebular Hypothesis 16 • Protoearth 17 • Density and Density
18
• Earth's Internal Structure 19
1.5 How Were Earth's
and Oceans
Formed? 22
Origin Of Earth's Atmosphere 22 • Origin Of Earth's Oceans 22
1.6 Did Life Begin in the Oceans? 23
The Importance Of Oxygen to Life 23 . Stanley Millers
Experiment 24 • Evolution and Natural Selection 25 •
Plants and Animals Evolve 25
DIVING DEEPER 1.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE The Voyage Of
HMS
How Shaped Charles Darwin's Thinking About the
Theory Of Evolution 28
1.7
How
Earth? 29
Age Dating 29 . The
Essential Concepts Review 31
vi
Time Scale 29
Continental Drift? 36
Of the Continents
Matching Sequences Of Rocks and Mountain
Chains 36 • Glacial Ages and Other Evidence 37 •
Distribution
Of Organisms
Objections to the Continental Drift Model 39
2.2 What Evidence Supports
Tectonics? 40
Earth's Magnetic
and
40
DIVING DEEPER 2.1 RESEARCH METHODS
OCEANOGRAPHY Do Sea
Turtles (and Other Animals) Use Earth's Magnetic Field for Navigation? 43
Sea
Spreading and Features Of the Ocean Basins 44 • Other
Evidence from the Ocean Basins 46 • The Acceptance Of a Theory 48
2.3 What Features Occur at Plate
50
Divergent Boundary Features 51 • Convergent Boundary
Features 55 • Transform Boundary Features 59
2.4 Testing the Model: What Are Some Applications Of Plate
Tectonics? 60
Hotspots and Mantle
60 • Seamounts and
63
•
Reef Development 63 . Detecting Plate Motion with
Satellites 65
2.5 How Has Earth Changed in the Past, and How Will it Look in
the Future? 66
The Past: Paleogeography 66 . The Future: Some Bold
2.6 How Can Plate Tectonics Be Used As A Working Model? 68
DIVING DEEPER 2.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE Ophiolites: A Gift From the
Sea Floor to the Bronze Age 70
Essential Concepts Review 72
67
Contents
©
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
MARINE PROVINCES 75
MARINE SEDIMENTS 97
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 97
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 75
What Techniques Are Used to Determine Ocean
75
Soundings 75 • Echo Soundings 76 •
Satellites to Map
Ocean Properties from Space 78 • Seismic Reflection Profiles 79
What Features Exist on Continental Margins? 80
Passive versus Active Continental Margins 80 • Continental
81 • Continental
82 • Submarine Canyons and
Turbidity Currents 82 • Continental Rise 84
What Features Exist in the Deep-Ocean Basins? 85
Abyssal Plains 85 •
the Abyssal Plains
Ocean Trenches and Volcanic
86
What Features Exist
Volcanic Features 88
vii
the Mid-Ocean Ridge? 88
DIVING DEEPER 3.1 RESEARCH METHODS
4.1
4.2
4.3
How Are Marine Sediments Collected, and What Historical
Events Do they Reveal? 98
Collecting Marine Sediments 99 • Environmental Conditions
Revealed by Marine Sediments 100 • Paleoceanography 100
What Are the Characteristics Of Lithogenous Sediment? 101
Origin Of Lithogenous Sediment 101 • Composition Of
Lithogenous Sediment 103 • Sediment Texture 103 • Distribution
Lithogenous Sediment 104
What Are the Characteristics Of Biogenous Sediment? 106
Origin Of Biogenous Sediment 106 • Composition Of Biogenous
Sediment 107
DIVING DEEPER 4.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Diatoms: The Most
Things You Have (Probably) Never Heard Of 108
OCEANOGRAPHY Earth's
Of Biogenous Sediment
Hypsographic Curve: Nearly Everything You Need to Know About Earth's
Oceans and
One Graph 89
Hydrothermal Vents 90 • Fracture Zones and Transform Faults 91
DIVING DEEPER 3.2 RESEARCH METHODS OCEANOGRAPHY Now
You See it, Now You
Recovering Oceanographic
Stuck
Oceanic Islands 94
Essential Concepts Review 94
characteristics Of Hydrogenous Sediment? 114
o f Hydrogenous Sediment 114 . Composition and
Distribution Of Hydrogenous Sediment
4.5 what Are the Characteristics Of
Sediment?
Composition, and Distribution Of Cosmogenous
Sediment 117
How Are Pelagic and Neritic Deposits Distributed? 118
Marine Sediment
• Neritic Deposits 119
Deposits 119 • How Sea Floor Sediments Represent Surface
Conditions 120 • Worldwide Thickness Of Marine Sediments 121
4.7 What Resources Do Marine Sediments Provide? 122
Energy Resources 122 • Other Resources 123
Essential Concepts Review 126
WATER
SEAWATER 129
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 129
5.1
Why Does Water Have Such Unusual Chemical Properties? 129
Structure 129 • The Water
5.2
130
What Other Important Properties Does Water Possess? 132
Water's Thermal Properties 132 • Water Density 137
5.3
How
Seawater? 139
Salinity 139 • Determining Salinity 140
DIVING DEEPER 5.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE How to Avoid Goiters 141
Comparing Pure Water and Seawater 142
5.4
Why Does Seawater Salinity Vary? 143
Salinity Variations 143 • Processes
Seawater Salinity 144
• Dissolved Components Added to and Removed from
Seawater 146
5.5
Seawater Acidic or Basic? 148
The pH Scale 148 • The Carbonate Buffering System 149
5.6
How Does Seawater Salinity Vary at the Surface and With
Depth? 151
Surface Salinity Variation 151 • Salinity Variation with Depth 152
• Halocline 153
6.6
How Do Sea
and Icebergs Form? 189
Formation Of Sea Ice 189 • Formation Of Icebergs 190
6.7
Can Power from Wind Be Harnessed as a Source Of Energy?
Essential Concepts Review 193
OCEAN CIRCULATION 197
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 197
7.1
How Are Ocean Currents Measured? 197
Surface Current Measurement 198
DIVING DEEPER 7.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Running Shoes as Drift
Meters: Just Do 199
Deep Current Measurement 200
7.2
How Are Ocean Surface Currents Organized? 201
Origin Of Surface Currents 201 • Main Components Of Ocean
Surface
202 • Other Factors Affecting Ocean Surface
Circulation 204 • Ocean Currents and Climate 208
5.7
5.8
Does Seawater Density
With Depth? 153
Diverging Surface Water 210 . Converging Surface Water 210
•
Upwelling and Downwelling 210 . Other Causes Of
to
Seawater? 156
Distillation 157 . Membrane Processes 157 . Other Methods Of
Upwelling
Desalination 158
Essential Concepts Review
o
6.1
6.2
163
163
What Causes Variations in Solar Radiation on Earth? 164
What Causes Earth's Seasons? 164 . How Latitude Affects the
Distribution Of Solar Radiation 165 • Oceanic Heat Flow 166
Circulation Patterns in Each Ocean
Basin? 212
Antarctic Circulation 212 • Atlantic Ocean Circulation 213
DIVING DEEPER 7.2 HISTORICAL FEATURE Benjamin Franklin: The
World's Most
Physical Oceanographer 216
Indian Ocean Circulation 217 • Pacific Ocean Circulation 219
Deep-Ocean
Exist? 226
Origin Of
Circulation 226 . Sources Of Deep
Worldwide Deep-Water Circulation 227
7.6 Can Power from Currents Be Harnessed as A Source Of Energy? 229
Essential Concepts Review 230
What Physical Properties Does the Atmosphere
Possess? 167
Composition Of
Atmosphere 167 • Temperature Variation in
the Atmosphere 167 . Density Variation in the Atmosphere 168
.
Water Vapor Content 168 .
Pressure 168 • Movement Of the Atmosphere 169 • An
A Nonspinning Earth 169
6.3
What Causes Upwelling and Downwelling? 210
Factors Affecting Seawater Density 153
and Density
Variation with Depth 154 . Thermocline and Pycnocline 155
H
WAVES AND WATER DYNAMICS 235
235
8.1 How Are Waves Generated, and How Do They
Move? 235
How Does the Coriolis Effect Influence Moving
Objects? 170
Disturbances Generate Ocean Waves 235 • Wave Movement 236
what Characteristics Do Waves Possess? 238
Example 1: Perspectives and Frames Of Reference on a Merry-GoRound 170 • Example 2: A Tale Of Two Missiles 171 • Changes in
the Coriolis Effect with Latitude 172
6.4 What Global Atmospheric Circulation Patterns Exist? 173
Circulation Cells 173 . Pressure 173 . Wind
174 .
Boundaries 175 • Circulation Cells: Idealized or Real? 176
6.5
Terminology 238 . Circular Orbital Motion 238 • DeepWater Waves 240 •
Waves 241 • Transitional
Waves 241
How Do Wind-Generated Waves Develop? 242
Development 242 . Interference Patterns 246 Rogue
Waves 247
Weather and Climate Patterns Occur in the Oceans? 177
change in the Surf Zone? 248
Weather versus Climate 177 . Winds 177
DIVING DEEPER 6.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE Why Christopher
Never Set Foot on North America 178
and Fronts 179 • Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes) 179 • The
Oceans Climate Patterns 187
Physical Changes as Waves Approach Shore 248 • Breakers and
Surfing 249 . Wave Refraction 250 Wave Reflection 252
8.5
How Are Tsunami Created? 253
Coastal Effects 255 • Some
Tsunami 255
Of
and
Contents
9.6
Can
ix
Power Be Harnessed as a Source Of Energy? 285
Power Plants 286
Essential Concepts Review 288
THE COAST: BEACHES AND SHORELINE
PROCESSES 291
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 291
10.1 How Are Coastal Regions Defined? 291
Beach
291 •
Composition 292
10.2 How Does Sand Move on the Beach? 293
Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline 293 • Movement Parallel
to the Shoreline 293
10.3 What Features Exist
Erosional and Depositional Shores? 295
Features Of Erosional Shores 295
DIVING DEEPER 10.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Warning: Rip Currents . . . Do
You
What to Do? 297
Features Of Depositional Shores 297
10.4 How Do Changes in Sea Level Produce Emerging and
Submerging Shorelines? 304
Features Of Emerging Shorelines 304 • Features Of Submerging
Shorelines 304 • Changes in Sea Level 304
10.5 What Characteristics Do U.S. Coasts Exhibit? 307
DIVING DEEPER 8.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Waves Of Destruction: The
Japanese Tsunami 259
.,
Tsunami Warning System 260
8.6
9.3
9.4
.
THE COASTAL OCEAN 319
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 319
267
ESSENTIALCONCEPTS 267
Causes
Tides? 267
Tide-Generating Forces 267 . Tidal Bulges: The
Effect 270 Tidal Bulges: The
Effect 271 . Earth's Rotation
the Tides 272
9.2
Groins and Groin Fields 310 • Jetties 312 • Breakwaters 312 •
314
261 • Global Coastal Wave
Essential Concepts Review 264
o
The Pacific Coast 309
10.6 How Does Hard Stabilization Affect Coastlines? 310
Can Power from Waves Be Harnessed as a Source Of Energy? 261
Wave Power Plants and Wave
Energy Resources 263
9.1
The Atlantic Coast 307.
How Do Tides Vary During a Monthly Tidal Cycle? 273
The Monthly Tidal Cycle 273 • Complicating Factors 274 .
Idealized Tide Prediction 276
What Do Tides Look Like in the Ocean? 277
Points and Cotidal Lines 277 . Effect Of the
Continents 277 • Other Considerations 278
What Types Of Tidal Patterns Exist? 279
Diurnal Tidal Pattern 279 • Semidiurnal Tidal Pattern 280 • Mixed
Tidal Pattern 280
9.5
Tidal
Occur in Coastal Regions? 280
DIVING DEEPER 9.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Tidal Bores: Boring Waves
These Are Not! 281
An Example Of Tidal Extremes: The Bay Of Fundy 282 . Coastal
Tidal Currents 282 . Whirlpools: Fact or Fiction? 283 . Grunion:
Doing What
Naturally on the Beach 283
11.1 What
Ocean Ownership? 320
Liberum and the Territorial Sea 324 . Law Of the Sea 320
What Characteristics Do Coastal Waters Exhibit? 322
Salinity 323 Temperature 323 . Coastal Geostrophic
Currents 324
11.3 What Types Of Coastal Waters Exist? 325
Estuaries 325 Lagoons 329 . Marginal Seas 330
What Issues Face Coastal Wetlands? 332
Types Of Coastal Wetlands 332 • Characteristics Of Coastal
Wetlands 334 . Serious Loss Of Valuable Wetlands 334
What Pollution? 335
Marine Pollution: A Definition 335 • Environmental Bioassay 336
• The
Of Waste Disposal in the Ocean 336
What Are the Main Types Of Marine Pollution? 337
Petroleum 337
DIVING DEEPER 11.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT The 2010
Mexico Deepwater Horizon
Spill 340
Of
Sewage Sludge 344 • DDT and PCBs 345 • Mercury and Minamata
Disease 346 . Nonpoint Source Pollution and Trash 349
Biological Pollution: Non-Native Species 353
Essential Concepts Review 354
x
Contents
©
MARINE
THE MARINE
BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY AND
ENERGY TRANSFER 387
ENVIRONMENT
ESSENTIAL
CONCEPTS359
359
12.1 What Are Living Things, and How Are They Classified? 359
A
Definition Of Life 359 • The Three Domains Of
Life 360 • The Five Kingdoms Of Organisms 361 • Linnaeus and
Taxonomic Classification 362
12.2 How Are Marine Organisms Classified? 363
Plankton (Drifters) 364 • Nekton (Swimmers) 365 • Benthos
(Bottom Dwellers) 366
12.3 How Many Marine Species Exist? 367
Why Are There So Few Marine Species? 368 • Species in
and Benthic Environments 368
12.4 How Are Marine Organisms Adapted for the Physical
Conditions Of the Ocean? 369
Need for Physical Support 369 • Waters Viscosity 370 •
Temperature 371 • Salinity 373 • Dissolved Gases 375 •
High Transparency 376 • Pressure 378
DIVING DEEPER 12.1 HISTORICAL FEATURE Diving into the Marine
Environment 379
12.5 What Are the Main Divisions Of the Marine Environment? 379
Pelagic (Open Sea) Environment 380 . Benthic (Sea Bottom)
Environment 382
Essential Concepts Review 384
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 387
13.1
Productivity? 387
Measurement Of Primary Productivity 388 • Factors Affecting
Primary Productivity 388 • Light Transmission in Ocean Water 390
• Why Are the Margins Of the Oceans So
in Life? 392
13.2 What Kinds Of Photosynthetic Marine Organisms Exist? 395
Seed-Bearing Plants (Anthophyta) 395 •
(Large)
395 •
397 • Ocean
Eutrophication and Dead Zones 400 • Photosynthetic Bacteria 401
How Does Regional Primary Productivity Vary? 403
Productivity in Polar (High Latitude) Oceans 404 • Productivity in
Tropical
Oceans 405 • Productivity in Middle Latitude
(Temperate) Oceans 405 • Comparing Regional Productivity 407
13.4 How Are Energy and Nutrients Passed
in Marine
407
Flow Of Energy in Marine Ecosystems 408 • Flow Of Nutrients in
Marine Ecosystems 408 .
Feeding Relationships 409
13.5 What
Affect Marine Fisheries? 413
Ecosystems and Fisheries 413 .
413
DIVING DEEPER 13.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Fishing Down the
Food Web: Seeing Believing 415
Incidental Catch 416 • Fisheries Management 417 • Seafood
Choices 420
Essential Concepts Review 421
ANIMALS OF THE PELAGIC
ENVIRONMENT 425
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 425
14.1 How Are Marine Organisms
Floor? 425
to Stay Above the Ocean
Use Of Gas Containers 425 • Ability to
426 Ability to
427 . The Diversity Of Planktonic Animals 427
14.2 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess for Seeking
Prey? 432
Mobility: Lungers versus Cruisers 432 • Swimming Speed 432
DIVING DEEPER 14.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Some Myths (and Facts)
About Sharks 433
versus
Organisms 434 • Adaptations
Nekton 434
14.3 What Adaptations Do Pelagic Organisms Possess to Avoid
Being Prey? 436
Schooling 436 •
437 • Other Adaptations 437
14.4 What Characteristics Do Marine
Possess? 438
Characteristics 439 Order Carnivora 440 • Order
Sirenia 441 • Order Cetacea 444
14.5 An Example Of Migration: Why Do Gray Whales Migrate? 451
Migration Route
. Reasons for Migration
•
Of
Migration 452 . Are Gray Whales an Endangered Species? 452
Whaling and the International Whaling
453
Essential Concepts Review 454
Contents xi
©
THE OCEANS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 491
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 491
16.1 What
Earth's Climate System? 491
16.2 Earth's Recent Climate Change:
Human Influence? 493
Natural or Caused by
Determining Earth's Past Climate: Proxy Data and
Paleoclimatology 494 • Natural Causes Of Climate
Change 494 • The
Documenting Human-Caused Climate
Change 498
16.3 What Causes the Atmosphere's Greenhouse
Effect? 500
Earth's Heat Budget and Changes in Wavelength 501 • Which
Gases Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? 501 • What
Documented Changes Are Occurring Because Of Global
Warming? 505
16.4 What Changes Are Occurring in the Oceans as a Result Of
Global Warming? 507
Increasing Ocean Temperatures 507
DIVING DEEPER 16.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT The ATOC
Experiment: SOFAR So Good? 508
Increasing Hurricane Activity 509 • Changes in Deep-Water
Circulation 509 • Melting Of Polar Ice 510 • Recent Increase in
Ocean Acidity 512 • Rising Sea Level
• Other Predicted and
Observed Changes 516
16.5 What Should Be Done to Reduce Greenhouse
©
Gases? 518
A N I M A L S OF THE BENTHIC
ENVIRONMENT
15.1 What
Warming
457
457
Exist
Reducing Greenhouse Gases 520 • The Kyoto Protocol:
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 521
Rocky Shores? 457
Intertidal Zonation 458 • The Spray (Supratidal) Zone: Organisms
and Their Adaptations 459 • The High Tide Zone: Organisms and
Their Adaptations 462 . The Middle Tide Zone: Organisms and
Their Adaptations 462 . The Low Tide Zone: Organisms and Their
Adaptations 464
15.2 What Communities Exist along
Shores? 465
Physical Environment Of the Sediment 465 • Intertidal Zonation 465
• Sandy Beaches: Organisms and Their Adaptations 466 • Mud Fiats:
Organisms and Their Adaptations 468
What Communities Exist on the Shallow Offshore Ocean
Floor? 468
Rocky Bottoms (Subtidal): Organisms and Their Adaptations 468 .
Reefs: Organisms and Their Adaptations 471
15.4 What Communities Exist on the Deep-Ocean Floor? 477
The Physical Environment 478 Food Sources and Species
478
DIVING DEEPER 15.1 RESEARCH METHODS
OCEANOGRAPHY How
Long
Your
on the Sea Floor? 479
Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Biocommunities: Organisms and
Their Adaptations 479 • Low-Temperature Seep Biocommunities:
Organisms and Their Adaptations 484 . The Deep Biosphere: A
New Frontier 486
Essential Concepts Review 487
. Possibilities
Afterword 526
What Are Marine Protected Areas? 527
Can I Do? 528
DIVING DEEPER AFT.1 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Ten Simple
Things You Can Do to Help Prevent Marine Pollution 529
Appendix I
and English Units
Appendix II
Locations
530
534
Appendix III Latitude and Longitude on Earth 536
Appendix IV A Chemical
Why Water Has 2 H's
Appendix V
Careers in Oceanography
543
DIVING DEEPER A5.1 OCEANS AND PEOPLE Report from a
Student/Oceanographer 545
Glossary
547
Credits and
565