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EXPLORING LIFE EXERCISE 3: FUNGI Exercise 3: Fungi Workbook Contents Corresponding Section on CD Vocabulary Key Concepts Introduction 1. Introduction General Biology of Fungi 2. General Biology of the Fungi Classification, Structures, Growth and Reproduction 2A. Classification 2B. Structure 2C. Growth and Reproduction The Zygomycota 3. The Zygomycota The Ascomycota General Features Life Cycle 4. The Ascomycetes 4A. General Features 4B. Life Cycle The Basidiomycota General Features Dikaryotic Cell Structure Reproductive Structures 5. The Basidiomycetes 5A. General Features 5B. Dikaryotic Cell Structure 5C. Reproductive Structures The Deuteromycota General Features Parasexuality 6. The Deuteromycetes 6A. General Features 6B. Parasexuality Fungal Associations Lichens Other Associations 7. Fungal Associations 7A. Lichens 7B. Mycorrhizal and Endophytic Associations Summary & Review Vocabulary Review Vocabulary Antheridium - Male reproductive structure Apothecium - Cup-shaped ascoma Arbuscules - Highly branched hyphae inside plant cells in endomycorrhizal associations Ascogonium - Female reproductive structure in the ascomycetes Ascoma - Spore producing structure in the ascomycetes Ascomata - Plural of ascoma 3-1 Ascomycetes - One of the three evolutionarily distinct divisions of fungi. The ascomycetes are characterized by the formation of multinucleated spores called conidia and by the formation of croziers and an ascus in sexual reproduction. Ascus - The structure that forms ascospores in the ascomycetes Aseptate - Without septae, i.e. cross walls Basidia - Club-shaped structures found on the gills on the underside of the pileus Basidiomata - Spore-producing structures of the basidiomycetes Basidium - Singular of basidia Basidiomycetes - One of the three divisions of fungi; characterized by the formation of basidia during sexual reproduction. Cleistothecium - An ascoma without an opening Coenocytic - Having many nuclei in a common cytoplasm Conidia - Multinucleated spores, produced by the ascomycetes Crozier - A hook-shaped structure produced in an ascoma. Nuclei in the central cell of the hook fuse to form the zygote in the ascomycetes. Deuteromycetes - An artificial grouping of fungi that do not reproduce sexually. Most members of this group are derived from the ascomycetes, though some doubtless come from the basidiomycetes and zygomycetes. Ectomycorrhizal - A fungal association between zygomycetes and plant roots in which the fungus does not penetrate the plant's cells Endophytic - Fungi that live in plant stems and leaves Endomycorrhizal - Fungi that live inside plant root cells, usually in cortical cells Fungi - One of the four kingdoms of eukaryotes. Members of this kingdom are characterized by a zygotic life cycle (the zygote is the only diploid cell in the life cycle), cell walls made of chitin, a body composed of hyphae, and a lack of histological differentiation. Fungi Imperfecti - Deuteromycetes Heterokaryon - A vegetative hyphae containing nuclei from more than one individual Heterokaryotic - Hetero refers to different; and karyo refers to the nuclei. Heterokaryotic means that there are nuclei from different individuals in the same hyphae. Homothallic - Refers to species in which individuals can mate with themselves Hyphae - Thin filaments of a fungus that form its body or mycelium Isogamous - Iso implies the same and gamous refers to gametes. In isogamous species the gametes are the same size and shape, thus individuals are not male or female but are referred to as being + or -. Karyogamy - The fusion of nuclei Lichen - An association between either green algae or cyanobacteria and an ascomycete or rarely a basidiomycete Monokaryotic - Having one nucleus per cell, mono = one; karyo = nucleus Mycelium - A mass of hyphae comprising one individual Mycorrhizal - Fungi that live in association with plant roots Perithecium - A flask-shaped ascoma Pileus - The cap of a mushroom Plasmogamy - The fusion of cytoplasms from different individuals Rhizoids - Hyphae that anchor the fungus to its substrate Septum - A cross wall dividing hyphae into cells Sporangiophore - The hyphae that support a sporangium Sporangium - Spore-producing structure Sterigmata - The projection of a basidium from which spores are released Stipe - The stalk supporting a pileus Stolons - Arching hyphae found between sporangiophores in the zygomycetes Trichogyne - The tube that grows from the ascogonium to the antheridium in the ascomycetes. The male nuclei move through this tube to enter the ascogonium. 3-2 Vesicles - Fungal swellings inside plant cells in endomycorrhizal associations. Vesicles are believed to be used by the fungus for storage of food. Zygomycetes - One of the three divisions of fungi; characterized by the production of zygospores Zygospore - A thick-walled spore that develops directly from a zygote. The spore is a resistant resting stage and is contained within a zygosporangium. 3-3 Key Concepts Introduction 1. The fungi are eukaryotic / prokaryotic and generally multicellular / unicellular. 2. Describe two ecologically important roles (+ and -) of fungi: 3. What portions of fungi remain alive and respiring? 4. List three economically important roles (+ and -) of fungi: General Biology of Fungi Classification, Structures, Growth and Reproduction 5. Draw a line between the term and its definition aseptate a. having a thread-like structure; used to describe the bodies of fungi coenocytic b. bodies of fungi, consisting of masses of filaments filamentous c. filaments that compose the bodies of fungi hyphae d. wall that divides a hyphae mycelia e. said of hyphae with septa; fungus then has definite cells septate f. said of hyphae without septa; fungus then has no definite cells septum g. having many nuclei within a common cytoplasm 5. Mark an “X” in the boxes that correspond to characteristics found within each group. Color in those boxes that do not apply. Characteristic Fungi Plants Animals Characteristic Fungi Plants Animals Cell Division Cell Walls of cellulose nuclear membrane breaks down of chitin nuclear membrane does not break down Capable of movement lack centrioles; few histone proteins Have motile gametes have centrioles and histone proteins Acquire nutrition through: capable of sexual & asexual reproduction Cells that undergo meiosis are ingestion external digestion/absorption diploid adult cells photosynthesis zygotes; only diploid life cycle stage Circulation Organism body heart & vessels little or no variation into tissues and organs cytoplasmic streaming differentiation of cells into tissues & organs Principle storage product Other characteristics; environmental contact glycogen definite size & shape; cells buffered starch indefinite size & shape; cells near 3-4 The Fungi Classification, Structures, Growth and Reproduction (continued) 6. Describe the unique structure of the fungi and what it allows them to do within their environment: How are we making use of this uniqueness? The Zygomycota 7. Zygospore = thick / thin walled structure produced during the asexual / sexual part of the life cycle. Asexual / sexual reproduction occurs only during times of stress. Label the steps of this process, and the 2n (diploid) state, on the diagram below. Be sure to use the terms dormancy, fusion, hyphae, mature, meiosis, nuclear fusion, nuclei, sporangium, spores, zygospore. 8. Pause the movie on the diagram of the zygomycete life cycle to complete the exercise below: Label this diagram with these terms: +mating type, -mating type, rhizoid, sporangium, sporangiophore, spores, stolon. This diagram represents asexual / sexual reproduction. 9. Using the “Key Words” function from the Main Menu, finish the following definitions: Isogamous = males and females have same / unequal sized gametes. Homothallic = species that fertilize another individual / themselves. Heterothallic = species that fertilize another individual / themselves. 3-5 Key Concepts The Ascomycota General Features 10. List some of the economic roles of members of this group: Positive: Negative: 11. Yeasts are classified as fungi because some have under certain conditions while others have reproductive structures like those of the ascomycota / basidiomycota / deuteromycota / zygomycota. 12. Mark an “X” in the boxes that correspond to characteristics found within each group. Asexual reproductive structures Ascomycota Zygomycota sporangia form many spores spores are multinucleated; called conidia spores are uninucleated conidiophores develop while conditions are favorable Life Cycle - It might be helpful to pause the movie at various points to label the following diagram. 13. Label the diagram below with descriptions of each step, including what is happening to the nuclei and all n/2n states, and these terms: antheridium, ascogonium, ascospore, ascoma, ascus, conidia, conidiophore, crozier, dikaryotic, diploid, germinating, haploid, hyphae, karogamy, meiotic, migrate, mitosis, nuclei, plasmogamy, sterile, trichogyne, “zygote”. This diagram represents asexual / sexual reproduction. It occurs when conditions are not stressful / stressful. 3-6 The Fungi The Basidiomycota General Features 14. What are some common example organisms from this group? 15. What are their two most important ecological roles? a) b) 16. Draw and label a picture of two typical adjacent basidiomycete cells. Use the terms membrane cap, pore, septum. Which of these structures is unique to basidiomycetes? Dikaryotic Cell Structure 17. Label the structures and processes of basidiomycete reproduction. Be sure to describe what is happening to the nuclei and use the terms: basidioma, basidiophore, basidium, basidiospore, monokaryotic, dikaryotic, plasmogamy, karyogamy, clamp connection. What is so important about clamp connections? 3-7 Key Concepts The Basidiomycota (continued) 18. Label the following basidiomycete life cycle diagram. Be sure to distinguish which part of the cycle is sexual and which part is asexual. Reproductive Structures 19. Draw and label a basidiomata (side and top views). Include the terms appressed hyphae, gills, pileus, stipe. Then draw and label an enlargement showing a basidium and sterigmata: 3-8 The Fungi The Deuteromycota General Features 20. The deuteromycetes are heterogeneous / homogeneous, made up of ascomycetes / basidiomycetes / zygomycetes, grouped together because they lack asexual / sexual reproduction. List and describe some of the important deuteromycetes: Parasexuality 21. Heterokaryotic = hyphae with nuclei from one / more than one individual of different / the same species in which both / only one / neither nucleus is genetically active. What is the difference between this and dikaryotic? 22. How do deuteromycetes ensure genetic variation? Briefly describe the process: Fungal Associations Lichens 23. These organisms are an association between a fungus and an What is the role of the fungus in this relationship? 24. What are the three shapes? 25. Draw and label a cross section of a typical lichen. 26. What are two ecological roles of lichens? Other Associations 27. With what other organisms (and where) do fungi form associations? 28. What are the fungi that form associations with roots? What is the role of the fungus in this relationship? 29. What do endophytic fungi do for the plants? What do endophytic fungi do to herbivores? 3-9 or a Summary & Review 1. What two structures do all fungi share? and . 2. Fill in the following chart and then use the chart to answer the questions below: Characteristics Ascomycota Basidiomycota Zygomycota cells walls made of septa present? distinguishing features (if any) asexual structure(s)/ processes sexual structure(s)/ processes time in diploid state representatives a) What are the features all fungi share that set them apart from other organisms? b) What characteristics do fungi lack that separate them from other organisms? c) Do fungi have motile cells in any part of their life cycle? Do other organisms? d) How do all fungi acquire nutrients? e) Look up the word “saprophytic.” How does it apply to fungi? f) What structures/processes seem to be unique to each of the groups? Ascomycota: Basidiomycota: Zygomycota: g) Why are the Deuteromycota not included in the table above? h) Go to movie #1, “The Five Kingdoms,” and review the various life cycles and modes of acquiring nutrition. What type of life cycle do fungi exhibit? How do fungi acquire their nutrition? 3-10 Fungi 2. Describe the ecological importance, both positive and negative, of each of the groups. Use specific examples where you can. a) Ascomycota: b) Basidiomycota: c) Zygomycota: d) Deuteromycota: 3. Describe the economic importance, both positive and negative, of each of the groups. Use specific examples where you can. a) Ascomycota: b) Basidiomycota: c) Zygomycota: d) Deuteromycota: 3-11 Vocabulary Review Using the following definitions, complete the crossword. Key definitions to learn are marked (*). Most definitions can be found in the “Key Words” section of the movie. Definitions for prefixes begin with “of the”. Across Down 5. cells with two, unfused nuclei 1. of the association where the fungus lives within a plant’s cells 6. of the association where the fungus does not penetrate a plant’s cells 2. male reproductive structure *8. association between a green algae or cyanobacteria and a fungus 3. spore-producing structures of the basidiomycetes *9. mass of hyphae comprising an individual fungus 4. the opening perforating the cross wall of septate hyphae 12. person who studies fungi 6. fungi that live in plant stems and leaves *13. of the division of fungi characterized by the formation of basidia 7. tube growing from ascogonium to antheridium among ascomycetes *14. of the artificial grouping of fungi that do not reproduce sexually 10. having many nuclei in a common cytoplasm 15. gamete-producing structures 11. having nuclei from different individuals in the same hypha *19. fungi that live in association with plant roots 12. parenthesis-shaped structure to either side of basidiomycete pores 23. cell formed by fusion of two gametes 16. thick-walled structure formed when two zygomycete hyphae fuse 24. one of the other, non-fungal organisms in a lichen 17. projection of a basidium from which spores are released 25. having half the number of chromosomes as a somatic cell 18. fusion of nuclei 27. multinucleated spores produced by the ascomycetes 20. a chemical produced by some fungi which can cause liver cancer 28. process of fusion, recombination & resegregation of chromosomes 21. without septae, i.e., cross walls 29. fusion of cytoplasm from different individuals 22. thin filaments that form the body, or mycelium, of a fungus 31. the basidiomycete form of cell division (two words) 26. division of fungi characterized by the formation of a zygospore 33. an asexual reproductive cell *27. multinucleated spores produced by the ascoma 35. division of fungi that forms conidia, croziers and asci 30. spore-producing structures 36. substance that forms the cell walls of fungi 32. ascoma without an opening 37. spore-producing structure in the ascomycetes 33. cross walls dividing hyphae into cells 38. hooked-shaped structures produced in the ascomycetes 34. fungal association between zygomycetes and plant roots in which the fungus does not penetrate the plant’s cells 40. one of the four kingdoms of eukaryotes, characterized by a zygotic life cycle, cell walls of chitin and a body composed of hyphae 39. stalk supporting a pileus 41. to break down a dead organism 3-12