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Chapter 9 Notes: Memory Memory: -active system that receives, stores, organizes, alters and recovers Information -incoming information is encoded (changed to a usable form) -then stored (held in the system) -later retrieved (taken out of storage) Sensory Memory -can hold exact copy of what was seen or heard for only a few seconds -long enough to transfer it to STM -icon: mental image Short-Term Memory (STM) -holds small amounts of information for brief periods -selective attention: focus on selected portion of sensory input -controls what gets into STM -can be stored as images, but mostly phonetically (sounds) -working memory: briefly holds information while other mental activities take place -sensitive to interference or interruption Long-Term Memory (LTM) -stores important or meaningful information -limitless, permanent -stored by meaning STM capacity: 7 plus or minus 2 -information chunks: bits of information grouped into larger units -recodes or reorganizes information into units already in LTM -maintenance rehearsal (silently repeat) prolongs memory -elaborative rehearsal: makes information more meaningful LTM -memories are affected by emotions, judgment -information may be arranged by rules, images, categories, symbols, Personal meaning Hypnosis: increases false memories 2 LTM -procedural memory (skill memory) -basic conditioned responses and learned actions -cerebellum: more automated elements of learning -declarative memory (fact memory) -names, dates, faces, ideas -semantic memory: personal knowledge about the world -names of objects, days of the week -episodic memory -personal information liked with specific times and dates -more easily forgotten than semantic memory Whether or not you remember depends on how you’re tested Recall: direct retrieval of information -serial position effect: tendency to make more errors in remembering the middle items in a series Recognition memory -correctly identify previously learned information -very accurate for visual stimuli, pictures -superior to recall -distractors: false items included with items to be recognized Relearning: most sensitive measure of memory -savings score: amount of time saved when re-learning information Explicit memories: past experiences consciously brought to mind Implicit memories: lie outside of awareness (keyboard) Internal images (mental pictures): # of doors in house Eidectic imagery: retain projected mental image long enough to use as information. Mnemonic: system or aid to memorize information Forgetting -most forgetting occurs right after memorization -semantic and implicit memories last longer -encoding failure: memory was never formed Decay: memory traces weaken over time 3 Disuse leads to fading in LTM Cue-dependent forgetting: appropriate cues enhance memories State-dependent learning: same emotional or bodily state at time of learning increases learning at time of retrieval Interference: new learning impairs retrieval of old memories Retroactive interference: tendency for new memories to interfere with retrieval of old memories Proactive interference: tendency for new memories to interfere with retrieval of newer memories -inhibits recall of later learning Positive transfer: mastery of 1 task increases mastery of another task (e.g., musical instrument) Negative transfer: mastery of 1 task conflicts with learning of another People tend to remember happy events rather than sad ones -repression: unconscious -suppression: conscious, can remember Consolidations: forming of an LTM -recent memories most easily disrupted -hippocampus Memory Strategies Knowledge of results: feedback to identify areas you need to practice Recitation: summarizing aloud while you are learning -read, stop and recall in your own words Rehearsal: mentally review, related to what you already know Selection: main idea of a paragraph Organization: chunk Whole vs. part learning: whole usually better for short speeches Serial position: pay special attention to the middle Cues: elaborate on information, form images Overlearning: better Spaced practice: superior to massed practice Sleep Hunger decreases recall Extend length of time can remember; wait longer to quiz yourself Review before exam 4 Sins of Memory Transcience: most useful memories given priority -repeat to make memories permanent Absent-Mindedness: poorly encoded memories -increase your organization Blocking: not being able to recall well-known word or name -accept it; it happens to everyone Misattribution: liking memory with wrong source, time or place Suggestibility: suggestions implant information that leads to revision of memories Bias: memories distorted to match our beliefs or expectations Persistence: traumatic experiences persist -may require therapy