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Republic of the Philippines Quezon City Polytechnic University IBP Road Batasan Hills Quezon City SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY “The Architecture of Social Stratification” _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ Dyali Justo Professor ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 1 Illustrations Philippine class system UPPER-UPPER CLASS UPPER CLASS MIDDLE CLASS LOWER CLASS LOWER LOWER CLASS MARX’s Model of Class Control labor Of others Own Means of Production (Land, Factories, Etc.) Do not Own Means of production Do not control Labor of others CAPITALISTS PETITE (Bourgeoisies) Bourgeoisie WORKERS WORKERS (Proletariat) (Proletariat) ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Illustrations ................................................................................................................................................... 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................... 3 I. Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................... 5 II. Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. 5 III. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 6 IV. Background ....................................................................................................................................... 7 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ....................................................................................................................... 8 V. SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ...................................................................................................... 8 SLAVERY ................................................................................................................................................ 8 CASTE SYSTEM....................................................................................................................................... 9 CLASS SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................... 10 ESTATE SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................... 12 PERSPECTIVES ON STRATIFICATION ........................................................................................................ 13 MARXIAN THEORY OF STRATIFICATION .............................................................................................. 13 Max Weber.......................................................................................................................................... 14 VI. SOCIAL CLASS .................................................................................................................................. 16 VII. DIMENSION OF SOCIAL CLASS......................................................................................................... 16 1. Wealth ......................................................................................................................................... 16 2. Power .......................................................................................................................................... 16 3. Prestige ....................................................................................................................................... 16 VIII. SOCIAL MOBILITY ............................................................................................................................ 17 IX. TYPES OF MOBILITY ......................................................................................................................... 19 Vertical Social Mobility ............................................................................................................... 19 Horizontal Social Mobility ........................................................................................................... 19 Ecological Mobility ...................................................................................................................... 19 Inter-generations Mobility .......................................................................................................... 19 ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 3 X. Social distance Mobility .............................................................................................................. 19 Demand Mobility ........................................................................................................................ 19 OPEN VERSUS CLOSED SYSTEM .......................................................................................................... 19 Open System ............................................................................................................................... 19 Closed System ............................................................................................................................. 19 XI. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY ............................................................................................... 20 XII. INEQUALITIES OF GENDER .............................................................................................................. 20 XIII. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION .................................................................................................. 20 Discrimination ......................................................................................................................................... 20 Personal / Individual Discrimination ........................................................................................... 21 Legal Discrimination .................................................................................................................... 21 Institutional Discrimination......................................................................................................... 21 PREJUDICE ............................................................................................................................................... 21 Cognitive Prejudice ..................................................................................................................... 22 Affective Prejudice ...................................................................................................................... 22 Behavioral Prejudice ................................................................................................................... 22 XIV. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 22 XV. RECOMMENDATION ....................................................................................................................... 22 XVI. BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................ 23 ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 4 I. Acknowledgements This report was made through the help of many people, especially to my group members for participating to our group report. We also wanted to thank our teachers for teaching and giving us a additional learnings and values nessessary for us to improve what we have now. To our God for the guidance and blessing we had received. Also, our parents, friends, co-members, classmates and other people around us for helping us to mold ourselves to make us good man like what we are now. II. Abstract In sociology and other social sciences, social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into divisions of power and wealth within a society. The term most commonly relates to the socio-economic concept of class, involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions ... a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions." The term stratification derives from the geological concept of strata - rock layers created by natural processes. In modern Western societies, stratification is typically described as a composition of three main layers: upper class, middle class, and lower class. Each class may be further subdivided into smaller classes (eg. occupational). These categories are particular to state-level societies as distinguished from, for instance, feudal societies composed of nobilityto-peasant relations. It is debatable whether the earliest hunter-gatherer groups may be defined as 'stratified', or if such differentials began with agriculture and broad acts of exchange between groups. To this extent social stratification may or may not start with society itself, and vice versa. Social stratification is interpreted in radically different ways according to the major theoretical perspectives of sociology. Proponents ofstructural-functionalism have suggested that since social stratification is commonly believed to exist in all societies, hierarchy must be necessary in order to stabilize the social structure. Talcott Parsons, an American sociologist, asserted that stability and social order are achieved by means of a universal value consensus, satisfying the functional prerequisites of a society. By contrast, conflict theories, such asMarxism, have scrutinized the inaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobility in stratified societies. Many sociological theorists have criticised the extent to which the working classes are unlikely to advance socioeconomically; the wealthy tend to hold political power which they use to exploit the proletariat generation after generation. Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf, however, have noted the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies due the necessity of an educated workforce in technological and service economies. Various social and political perspectives concerning globalization, such as dependency theory, suggest that these effects are due to the shift of workers to the third world. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 5 III. Introduction This Report investigates the basic issues of inequality and stratification. Why do people have more of a society’s resources and opportunities than other people do? How is inequality felt at the individual and institutional levels? We also explore various forms of social mobility and dimensions of social class. In like manner, the four major systems of social stratification; slavery, caste, class and estate system are exmined. After reading this report, you are expected to Define Social Stratification and briefly discuss the four major systems of social stratification. Describe the characteristics of slavery. Distinguish caste and class system and give examples of each. Identify tha basic assumption ok Karl Marx regarding what determines one’s social class. Comprehend the measure and dimensions of social class. Understand the different issues on social inequalities. Why study sociology? Sociology is one of the liberal arts (and I would argue the most inherently interesting). Sociology prepares one for a lifetime of change, developing one's appreciation of diversity, love of learning, writing and study skills, as well as a knowledge base about human behavior, social organization, and culture. If you are the type who doesn't necessarily follow the crowd (but are fascinated by their behavior), the type who is truly interested in what is going on in the world, then the world of sociology and the subjects found therein should interest if not fascinate you. Secondly and most seriously, the field helps us look more objectively at the society in which we live. It directs attention to how the parts of society fit together as well as the causes and consequences of social change. In modern industrial-bureaucratic societies we are faced with an increasingly complex and rapidly changing social milieu. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 6 IV. Background Sociology is the study of the social part of us, the pattern of interaction with other people which is necessary to our very existence. Sociology has been described as 'the scientific study of human group behavior' and 'the application of scientific methods of inquiry to the puzzles of social life.' We all participate in any number of social groups, many of which overlap. Sociologists study how and why these groups interact with each other and how the interactions affect their members. Such analyses not only yield a clearer understanding of society and its components, but also allow sociologists to see both the causes and the possible remedies for our social problems. A study of sociology provides the conceptual tools and methodologys for understanding the contemporary scene. By focusing on the external constraints to social action it helps us better understand ourselves and the motivations of others around us. While we are all creatures of our society, we are also all co-creators--sociology provides the tools so that we can take a more active role in that creation, a role that is essential if we hope to achieve a more just world and egalitarian society. The study of poverty and inequality has been thrust into the foreground as scholars, politicians, and policymakers respond to the spectacular increase in economic inequality and the slowing, stalling out, or even reversal of long-standing downward trends in other forms of inequality. A mainstay of the field for more than a decade, Social Stratification has now been fully updated and revised with additional readings and newly commissioned pieces, all from top scholars of poverty and inequality. This collection reflects ongoing changes in the structure of inequality and in the tools and concepts that have been used to understand these changes. Oriented toward the advanced student, Social Stratification provides a demanding, comprehensive, no-holds-barred overview of classic and contemporary scholarship. The history of the field unfolds systematically from the early and modern classics to the cutting-edge scholarship that currently drives the field. The resulting collection, even more comprehensive and diverse than its predecessor, can be used as a stand-alone text for courses on stratification, poverty, and inequality, as well as occupations, labor markets, and social mobility. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 7 V. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social stratification is the "division of society into two or more categories of people ranked high to low relative to one another." (Haviland, 2002, p. 492). Stratification is present in almost every type of culture except in egalitarian societies. The purpose of stratification is to divide the community into groups based on responsibility and privileges. There are many forms stratification can take: class systems, caste systems, feudalism, etc. In order to appreciate the difference between stratification systems a side-by-side comparison needs to be made. Social stratification is the "division of society into two or more categories of people ranked high to low relative to one another." (Haviland, 2002, p. 492). Stratification is present in almost every type of culture except in egalitarian societies. The purpose of stratification is to divide the community into groups based on responsibility and privileges. There are many forms stratification can take: class systems, caste systems, feudalism, etc. In order to appreciate the difference between stratification systems a side-by-side comparison needs to be made. SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Every society stratifies its member in some form. There are four major systems of stratification: SLAVERY Slavery (also called thralldom) is a form of forced labour in which people are considered to be the property of others. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to receivecompensation (such as wages). With around 27 million people, there are more slaves in the world today than at any point in history, more than twice as many as all theAfrican slaves brought to the Americas. Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt bondage incurred bylenders, sometimes even generations ago. Human trafficking is mostly for prostituting women and children into the sex trade and industry. It is described as "the largest slave trade in history" and is the fastest growing criminal industry, set to outgrow drug trafficking. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 8 CASTE SYSTEM The Indian caste system (English pronunciation: /kæst, kɑːst/) describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamoushereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes. Within a jāti, there exist exogamous groups known as gotras, the lineage or clan of an individual, although in a handful of sub-castes like Shakadvipi, endogamy within a gotra is permitted and alternative mechanisms of restricting endogamy are used (e.g. banning endogamy within a surname). Although generally identified with Hinduism, the caste system was also observed among followers of other religions in the Indian subcontinent, including some groups of Muslims and Christians. The Indian Constitution has outlawed caste-based discrimination, in keeping with the socialist, secular, democratic principles that founded the nation. Caste barriers have mostly broken down in large cities, though they persist in rural areas of the country, where 72% of India's population resides. Nevertheless, the caste system, in various forms, continues to ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 9 survive in modern India strengthened by a combination of social perceptions and divisive politics. In sociological terms, the basis of a caste system is ascribed status. While achieved status cannot change an individual place in hierarchy. CLASS SYSTEM An early example of a stratum class model was developed by the sociologist William Lloyd Warner in his 1949 book, Social Class in America. For many decades, the Warnerian theory was dominant in U.S. sociological theory. Wealthy citizens from the Canadian city of Toronto attend a formal dinner Based on social anthropology, Warner divided Americans into three classes (upper, middle, and lower), then further subdivided each of these into an "upper" and "lower" segment, with the following postulates: ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 10 Upper-upper class. "Old money." People who have been born into and raised with wealth; mostly consists of old "noble" or prestigious families (e.g., Earl of Shrewsbury, Vanderbilt, Rockefeller). Lower-upper class. "New money." Individuals who have become rich within their own lifetimes (e.g., entrepreneurs, movie stars, top athletes, as well as some prominent professionals). Upper-middle class. Professionals with a college education, and more often with postgraduate degrees like MBAs, Ph.D.s, MDs, JDs, MSs, etc. (e.g., doctors, dentists, lawyers, bankers, corporate executives, head teachers, university professors, scientists, pharmacists, airline pilots, ship captains, actuaries, high level civil servants, politicians, and military officers, architects, artists, writers, poets, and musicians). Lower-middle class. Lower-paid white collar workers, but not manual laborers. Often hold Associates or Bachelor degrees. (e.g., police officers, fire fighters, primary and high school teachers, engineers, accountants, nurses, municipal office workers and low to mid-level civil servants, sales representatives, non-management office workers, clergy, technicians, small business owners). Upper-lower class. Blue-collar workers and manual labourers. Also known as the "working class." Lower-lower class. The homeless and permanently unemployed, as well as the "working poor." To Warner, American social class was based more on attitudes than on the actual amount of money an individual made. For example, the richest people in America would belong to the "lower-upper class" since many of them created their own fortunes; one can only be born into the highest class. Nonetheless, members of the wealthy upper-upper class tend to be more powerful, as a simple survey of U.S. presidents may demonstrate (i.e., the Roosevelts; Kennedys; Bushes). Another observation: members of the upper-lower class might make more money than members of the lower-middle class (i.e., a well-salaried factory worker vs. a secretarial worker), but the class difference is based on the type of work they perform. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 11 In his research findings, Warner observed that American social class was largely based on these shared attitudes. For example, he noted that the lower-middle class tended to be the most conservative group of all, since very little separated them from the working class. The uppermiddle class, while a relatively small section of the population, usually "set the standard" for proper American behavior, as reflected in the mass media. Professionals with salaries and educational attainment higher than those found near the middle of the income strata (e.g. bottom rung professors, managerial office workers, architects) may also be considered as being true middle class. Philippine class system UPPER-UPPER CLASS UPPER CLASS MIDDLE CLASS LOWER CLASS LOWER LOWER CLASS ESTATE SYSTEM The estate system is synonymous with Feudalism. The feudal estates had three important characteristics .In the first place they were legally defined; each estate had a status with legal rights and duties, privileges and obligations. Secondly the estates represented a broad division of labor and were regarded as having definite functions. The nobility were ordained to defend all, the clergy to pray for all and the commons to provide food for all. Thirdly the feudal estates were political groups. An assembly of estates possessed political power. From this point of view the serfs did not constitute an estate until 12th century. This period saw the emergence of third estate -burghers who were a distinctive group within the system. Thus the three estates -clergy, nobility and commoners functioned like three political groups. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 12 PERSPECTIVES ON STRATIFICATION Social stratification is interpreted in radically different ways according to the major theoretical perspectives of sociology. Proponents of structural-functionalism have suggested that since social stratification is commonly believed to exist in all societies, hierarchy must be necessary in order to stabilize the social structure. Talcott Parsons, an American sociologist, asserted that stability and social order are achieved by means of a universal value consensus, satisfying the functional prerequisites of a society. By contrast, conflict theories, such as Marxism, have scrutinized the inaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobility in stratified societies. Many sociological theorists have criticised the extent to which the working classes are unlikely to advance socioeconomically; the wealthy tend to hold political power which they use to exploit the proletariatgeneration after generation. Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf, however, have noted the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies due the necessity of an educated workforce in technological and service economies. Various social and political perspectives concerning globalization, such as dependency theory, suggest that these effects are due to the shift of workers to the third world. MARXIAN THEORY OF STRATIFICATION In Marxist theory, the capitalist mode of production consists of two main economic parts: the Base and the Superstructure. The base comprehends the relations of production — employeremployee work conditions, the technical division of labour, and property relations — into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. In the capitalist system, the ruling classes own the means of production, which essentially includes the working class itself as they only have their own labour power ('wage labour') to offer in order to survive. These relations fundamentally determine the ideas and philosophies of a society, constituting the superstructure. A temporary status quo is achieved by various methods of social control employed, consciously or unconsciously, by the bourgeoisie in the course of various aspects of social life. Through the ideology of the ruling class, false consciousness is promoted both through ostensibly political and non-political institutions, but also through the arts and other elements of culture. Marx believed thecapitalist mode would eventually give way, through its own internal conflict, to revolutionary consciousness and the development of egalitarian communist society. According to Marvin Harris and Tim Ingold, Lewis Henry Morgan's accounts of egalitarian hunter-gatherers formed part of Karl Marx and Engels's inspiration for communism. Morgan spoke of a situation in which people living in the same community pooled their efforts and ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 13 shared the rewards of those efforts fairly equally. He called this "communism in living." But when Marx expanded on these ideas, he still emphasized an economically-oriented culture, with property defining the fundamental relationships between people. Yet, issues of ownership and property are arguably less emphasized in hunter-gatherer societies. This, combined with the very different social and economic situations of hunter-gatherers may account for many of the difficulties encountered when implementing communism in industrialized states. As Ingold points out: "The notion of communism, removed from the context of domesticity and harnessed to support a project of social engineering for large-scale, industrialized states with populations of millions, eventually came to mean something quite different from what Morgan had intended: namely, a principle of redistribution that would override all ties of a personal or familial nature, and cancel out their effects. MARX’s Model of Class Control labor Of others Own Means of Production (Land, Factories, Etc.) Do not Own Means of production Do not control Labor of others CAPITALISTS PETITE (Bourgeoisies) Bourgeoisie WORKERS WORKERS (Proletariat) (Proletariat) Max Weber Max Weber was strongly influenced by Marx's ideas, but rejected the possibility of effective communism, arguing that it would require an even greater level of detrimental social control and bureaucratization than capitalist society. Moreover, Weber criticized the dialectical presumption of proletariat revolt, believing it to be unlikely. Instead, he developed the three-component theory of stratification and the concept of life chances. Weber supposed there were more class divisions than Marx suggested, taking ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ different concepts from Page 14 both functionalist and Marxist theories to create his own system. He emphasized the difference between class, status, and party, and treated these as separate but related sources of power, each with different effects on social action. Working around half a century later than Marx, Weber claimed there to be in fact four main classes: the upper class, the white collar workers, the petite bourgeoisie, and the manual working class. Weber's theory more-closely resembles modern Western class structures, although economic status does not seem to depend strictly on earnings in the way Weber envisioned. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the social structure of Germany. He noted that contrary to Marx's theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership ofcapital. Weber examined how many members of the aristocracy lacked economic wealth yet had strong political power. Many wealthy families lacked prestige and power, for example, because they were Jewish. Weber introduced three independent factors that form his theory of stratification hierarchy; class, status, and power: Class: A person's economic position in a society. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. Weber noted how managers of corporations or industries control firms they do not own; Marx would have placed such a person in the proletariat. Status: A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber noted that political power was not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. Poets or saints, for example, can possess immense influence on society with often little economic worth. Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others. For example, individuals in state jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but they still hold immense power. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 15 VI. SOCIAL CLASS Group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status. The term was first widely used in the early 19th century, following the industrial and political revolutions of the late 18th century. The most influential early theory of class was that of Karl Marx, who focused on how one class controls and directs the process of production while other classes are the direct producers and the providers of services to the dominant class. The relations between the classes were thus seen as antagonistic. Max Weber emphasized the importance of political power andsocial status or prestige in maintaining class distinctions. Despite controversies over the theory of class, there is general agreement on the characteristics of the classes in modern capitalist societies. In many cases the upper class has been distinguished by the possession of largely inherited wealth, while the working class has consisted mostly of manual labourers and semiskilled or unskilled workers, often in service industries, who earn moderate or low wages and have little access to inherited wealth. The middle class includes the middle and upper levels of clerical workers, those engaged in technical and professional occupations, supervisors and managers, and such self-employed workers as small-scale shopkeepers, businesspeople, and farmers. There is also often an urban substratum of permanently jobless and underemployed workers termed the "underclass." VII. DIMENSION OF SOCIAL CLASS Social class has three dimensions: 1. Wealth Consists of property (what we own) and income (money we receive) 2. Power Refers to the ability of an individual or group to cary out its wishes or policies, and to the control, manipulate or influence the behavior of others. 3. Prestige Is the respect or regard people give to various occupations and accomplishments. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 16 VIII. SOCIAL MOBILITY Social mobility is the degree to which an individual's family or group's social status can change throughout the course of their life through a system of social hierarchy or stratification. Subsequently, it is also the degree to which an individual's or group's descendants move up and down the class system. The individual or family can move up or down the social classes based on achievements or factors beyond their control. It is a sociological concept. Intra-generational mobility ("within" a generation) is defined as changes in social status over a single life-time. Inter-generational mobility ("across" generations) is defined as changes in social status that occur from the parents' to the children's generation. These definitions are particularly useful when analyzing how social status changes from one time period to another, and if a person's parents' social status influences that of their own. Sociologists usually focus on intergenerational mobility because it is easier to depict changes across generations rather than within one. This information helps sociologists determine whether inequality in a culture changes over time. Intra-generational mobility occurs when a person strives to change his or her own social standing. In some societies, this type of change is easier than in others. In social systems where people are divided into castes or ethnic groups, social mobility is limited. Whatever caste or ethnic group a person is born into, is what they will remain for the entirety of their life. However, in cultures where social standing is determined by factors that can change across generations, such as merit, education, skills, abilities, actions or wealth, people can move up and down the social ladder. Intra-generational mobility can move a person either higher or lower in the social ladder. If one starts at a low level, they can improve their status by working hard, getting a better job, or becoming more culturally sound, to name a few. Pierre Bourdieu describes three types of capital that place a person in a certain social category. These are economic capital, social capital, and cultural capital. Economic capital is command over economic resources such as money and assets. Social capital is resources one achieves based on group membership, relationships, networks of influence, and support from other people. Cultural capital is any advantage a person has that gives them a higher status in society, such as education, skills, and any other form of knowledge. Usually, people with all three types of capital have a high status in society. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 17 Inter-generational mobility occurs across generations. This mobility is both merit- and nonmerit-based. Ability and hard work affect social mobility, but so does parents’ wealth, race, gender, and luck. Fiona Devine wrote a book, Class practices: how parents help their children get good jobs, specifically on inter-generational mobility and how parents’ influence can affect the child’s social mobility. Nearly every chapter emphasizes the importance of a good education in order to be successful. Parents also help children make important connections with people in order to expand their social network. Parents that can create social capital for their children tend to increase their child’s social mobility. Recent researchers collecting data on the economic mobility of families across generations, looked at the probability of reaching a particular income distribution in regards to where their parents were ranked and found that 42 percent of those whose parents were in the bottom quintile ended up in the bottom quintile themselves, 23 percent of them ended in the second quintile, 19 percent in the middle quintile, 11 percent in the fourth quintile and 6 percent in the top quintile. These data indicate the difficulty of upward intergenerational mobility. Annette Lareau argues regarding child-raising in her book, Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. She describes two different ways to raise children: concerted cultivation and natural growth. Concerted cultivation, normally used by middle-class families, incorporates scheduling many structured, organized activities for the child. They are taught to use their language to reason with parents and other adults, and often the child adopts a sense of entitlement. Natural growth is almost the exact opposite of concerted cultivation. Occurring mainly in poor or working-class families, this style of childrearing does not include organized activities, and there is a clear division between the adult and the child. Children usually spend large amounts of their day creating their own activities, and they hardly ever speak with adults. In fact, adults use language in order to direct or order the children, never to negotiate with them. These two different types of childrearing can affect inter-generational mobility. Children who grow up with a concerted cultivation style of childrearing learn from their parents how to talk with adults as equals and negotiate to get favorable outcomes in any situation. This skill helps them create powerful social networks, which can improve their social standing. Children with natural growth accomplishment tend to have a more difficult time improving their social standing. They lack the social skills and sense of entitlement that children raised with the ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 18 concerted cultivation method have, and therefore are less likely to acquire good jobs (and therefore, improve their social standing). Children who have been raised with natural growth do learn to comply with authority figures, instead of argue with them, which gives them an advantage over concerted cultivated children in certain fields of employment. However, those are generally the entry-level fields where you are paid to follow orders and not to think, and are therefore the lower-paying ones, whereas the middle-class concertedly cultivated children's reasoning skills aid them in attaining the higher-paying, higher-prestige white collar jobs. IX. TYPES OF MOBILITY Vertical Social Mobility Horizontal Social Mobility Ecological Mobility Inter-generations Mobility Social distance Mobility Demand Mobility X. OPEN VERSUS CLOSED SYSTEM Most sociologists use the term open stratification system and closed stratification system to indicate the degree of social mobility in a society. Open System A social system in which the position of each individual in influenced by his or her achieved status. Closed System A social system in which there is no possibility of individual social mobility. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 19 XI. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY Social inequality occurs when certain groups in a society do not have equal social status. Aspects of social status involve property rights, voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, access to health care, andeducation as well as many other social commodities. XII. INEQUALITIES OF GENDER Existent between men and women. These inequalities can range from a difference in genetics, to income (i.e. job placement), to stereotypes, to power in the household, blah, blah, blah. These said inequalities usually, but not always, are in favor of men having more power. That's the gist of it. I think. 1. Sex A ranking system in which sex is the basis for making the evaluations so that gender becomes the basis for social stratification. 2. Gender refers to the obvious or hidden disparity between individuals due to gender. Gender is constructed both socially through social interactions as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences. Gender systems are often dichotomous and hierarchical; binary gender systems may reflect inequalities that manifest in numerous dimensions of daily life. Gender inequality stems from distinctions, whether empirically grounded or socially constructed, made between males and females. XIII. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Discrimination Discrimination is a sociological term referring to the treatment taken toward or against a person of a certain group that is taken in consideration based on class or category. TheUnited Nations explains: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection."Discriminatory laws such as redlining have existed in many countries. In some countries, controversial attempts such as racial quotas have been used to redress negative effects of discrimination. In 1856 Australia was the first country that introduced the 8hr working day. 1904 Conciliation & Arbitration Act, but Separate State industrial structures. In 1907 the basic wage was introduced ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 20 this age was for Living wage for male worker, dependent wife, 3 children in rented house. For the next 15 years no major changes happened other then increased agreement flexibility and work practices. In 1988 a new part to the industrial relations was brought in called the “structure efficiency principal” • Trade off between productivity and pay risers. • Change from cost of living to ability to pay. In 1997 the “workplace agreements was created, which potentially removed third party’s (unions) from entering negotiations in the work place. This new agreement also increased enterprise bargaining/ flexibility and social discrimination. behavior (an action), with reference to unequal treatment of people because they are members of a particular group. Farley also put discrimination into three categories: Personal / Individual Discrimination is directed toward a specific individual and refers to any act that leads to unequal treatment because of the individual's real or perceived group membership. Legal Discrimination refers to "unequal treatment, on the grounds of group membership, that is upheld by law."Apartheid is an example of legal discrimination, as are also various postCivil war laws in the southern United States that legally disadvantaged negros with respect to property rights, employment rights and the exercise of constitutional rights. Institutional Discrimination refers to unequal treatment that is entrenched in basic social institutions resulting in advantaging one group over another. The Indian caste system and European feudal system are historical examples of institutional discrimination. PREJUDICE A prejudice is a prejudgement: i.e. a preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment made without ascertaining the facts of a case. The word prejudice is most commonly used to refer to a preconceived judgment toward a group of people or a single person because of race, social class, gender, ethnicity, age, disability, political beliefs , religion, line of work or other personal characteristics. It also means a priori beliefs (without knowledge of the facts) and includes "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence."Although positive and negative prejudice both exist, when used negatively, "prejudice" implies fear and antipathy toward such a race. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 21 Cognitive Prejudice refers to what people believe to be true. metaphysical or methodological philosophy at the expense of other philosophies which may offer a more complete theoretical explanation. Affective Prejudice refers to what people like and dislike: for example, in attitudes toward members of particular classessuch as race, ethnicity, national origin, or creed. Behavioral Prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. It is regarded as an attitude because people do not act on their feelings. An example of conative prejudice may be found in expressions of what should be done if the opportunity presents itself. XIV. Conclusion We conclude that the study of classes or category in the society needs a huge and very complicated studies and analysis. The studies on the principles and the logic related on this topic makes much interesting about sociology. We had learned that theres a big changes in social class that we don’t know before. We also learned the theories from marx and weber about the social stratification. XV. RECOMMENDATION We recomeded that the readers will continue the studies about social stratification and classes, that we don’t know maybe someday it will be the answer to our social problems about unequal class among us. ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 22 XVI. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090208124113AAUiWXy http://books.google.com.ph/books?id= tMcNj4ZBncC&dq=social+stratification&source=bl&ots=Aj63plFqCy&sig=y5yAiLI6da w0vj9iYG52zcJIec&hl=tl&ei=qqaDS_OfD4rU7APvr7Ux&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3 &ved=0CBQQ6AEwAg http://cdn.newsone.com/files/2009/06/slave-ship-2.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_in_India http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_inequality http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification http://images.google.com.ph/imgres?imgurl=http://contractattorneys.files.wordpress.com/2009/0 2/caste-system01.jpg&imgrefurl=http://contractattorneys.wordpress.com/2009/02/16/the-zen-of-stigmain-the-legalworld/&usg=__VgZMu2k6hAMrL8ugGDvjKCIFEA0=&h=172&w=250&sz=11&hl=tl &start=6&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=Pv7jGQJXu7RlBM:&tbnh=76&tbnw=111&prev=/imag es%3Fq%3Dcaste%2Bsystem%26um%3D1%26hl%3Dtl%26sa%3DN%26rlz%3D1C1G GLS_enPH365PH365%26tbs%3Disch:1 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_study_sociology http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/12142/social_stratification.html?cat=4 http://www.brahmins.com/brahmins.jpg http://www.cs.kent.edu/~wcheng/YenJu/slavery.jpg http://www.reference.com/search?q=gender%20stratification&r=d&db=web http://www.sociologyguide.com/social-stratification/estate-system.php ๑۩۞۩๑ღ SOCIAL CLASS AND INEQUALITY ღ๑۩۞۩๑ Page 23