Download Writing Skills and Style Guide

Writing Skills and Style Guide
For the Bachelor Program in Cultural
Anthropology and Development Sociology
and the Master Program in Cultural and Social
Anthropology at the UvA
Amsterdam, March 2015
Table of Contents
1. Reading and Listening
1.1 Reading Skills
1.2 Listening Skills
3
3
5
2. Writing
2.1 Format and layout
2.2 Style: Rules and Tips
2.3 The Structure of a Text
2.4 Quoting and Paraphrasing
2.5 Preventing Plagiarism
2.6 Literature References
2.7 Figures, Illustrations, and Tables
2.8 The Revision Phase
2.9 Types of Assignments
6
6
6
9
13
15
16
20
20
22
26
3. Presentations
3.1 What to do/what not
to do
3.2 Public Speaking
26
28
2
1. Reading and Listening
1.1 Reading Skills
When you study at a university, you should have an adequate knowledge of how to read
scientific texts. In this context, "reading" means that you must both understand a text as
well as its specific arguments. Academic literacy demands a critical approach where
you must keep several questions in mind: how do you recognize important themes,
arguments, and counter-arguments in an anthropological text? How is an argument
structured? How do you distinguish an author's main points from their minor points?
Before you begin to ask yourself these questions, it is helpful to obtain an initial
impression of the text that you will read. With an ethnography (an anthropological
monograph), first browse through the table of contents and skim the chapters, especially the
introduction and conclusion. What are the titles of the chapters and the sub-headings of each
section? You will quickly get an idea of what the book is roughly about, as well as the
general content of each section. In monographs, the introduction will usually indicate the
author's line of argumentation (the main problem will be presented and the structure of the
book will be laid out), and the conclusion provides a summary or a review of the argument. It
may therefore be useful to read the introduction and conclusion first before you delve into the
rest of the book, so that you can get a better overview of the whole. The same is often true
when you deal with the chapters: the introduction to each chapter is usually an indication of
what the author wishes to highlight in that chapter, and the conclusion is a sort of a look back
at the chapter. It is also helpful to read the first and last paragraphs before you read the rest of
the chapter. Most articles will have an abstract: a short summary of the article, including the
most important points that the author wishes to underline.
Most anthropological (and other social scientific) texts feature four elements:
– a research question or a research problem;
– data or information that is used to back up an answer to the research question or problem;
– an explanation or interpretation of the answer;
3
– question, data, and analysis organized in the form of an argument.
When you read, keep these elements in mind, especially the relationship between the data
and the conclusion. What does the author want to find out, account for, or explain? Which
academic debates does he or she wish to contribute to?
Passages where an author puts forth a specific position or stance in relation to other
authors are important and require your attention. Try to follow the reasoning of the author
and verify if their argument, explanation, or analysis holds water, or if it can be refuted.
How are the facts and claims argued and represented? Has the author done justice to the
original theory, or is her/his representation incomplete or even incorrect? To what extent is
there a clear link between the data and the conclusions? How does the argument relate to
analyses of the same topic by other researchers?
Remember that there can never be a completely "neutral" or "objective"
description in anthropological work. The author provides an interpretation of (part of)
the social reality, based on anthropological research - which by its very nature is
intersubjective. After all, this interpretation is produced by the interaction with members
of the group that is being examined, and is influenced by the interests and preconceived
knowledge of both the researcher and the informants. The theoretical perspective of the
anthropologist also affects the selection and analysis of data. Anthropological
methodology pays specific attention to this issue.
Pay attention to signal words that indicate that an author is about to say something
important. Phrases like "I argue that," "It is my argument," or "It is my hypothesis" signal
that an argument will follow. When authors come to a conclusion, they use words such as
"Thus," "Consequently," "In conclusion," "To conclude," or "To sum up." Often these
words are deliberately used at the beginning of a sentence - the author wants you to notice
them. Also pay attention to definitions of concepts (or if definitions of concepts are lacking)
and passages where the author argues how their ethnography or argument relates to other
ethnographic work or theoretical perspectives.
Make notes while you read! In summarizing the literature, you can also take notes on
key quotes that reflect the author's main ideas and the central argument(s) of the author (key
phrases). You can use these phrases if you paraphrase (if you write them in your own
words), but write them down literally first. Make sure you write down the page numbers of
the original text when you make notes on an article or a monograph, so that you can find the
passages again, as well as direct the reader to the correct reference. Do this systematically.
4
Use key words in your summary, so that it is easy to recognize which topic(s) you have
summarized. Also write down any comments and criticism based on what you read in the
text. As you can see, reading and writing go hand in hand. You must also take notes when
you listen to lectures and presentations.
1.2 Listening Skills
Listening is an undervalued academic skill. You should be able to separate the wheat from
the chaff when listening to someone give a talk in a lecture or tutorial. What is important?
What are the key points of the argument? Does the speaker's argument make sense or
does it contain contradictions? What kinds of rhetorical devices are used? Good listening
requires concentration, which means that you will need to write down notes while you
listen.
Students often ask whether the contents of a lecture will be made available on
Blackboard. Many lecturers feel reluctant to do this, because learning to listen is important.
This does not only apply to lectures or seminars; during research, whether in informal
conversations or formal interviews, anthropologists must always be mindful of what
informants say (or withhold) as well as how things are phrased. They must always weigh
and note down the importance of what is being said – including slips of the tongue,
hesitations, or silences. What informants say rarely matches exactly what they do. Your
written notes can sometimes tell you a more nuanced story.
Therefore, even if you are reading or listening, you will often have to write. A good
beginning will lessen your workload later, but notes on their own do not form a clearly
structured text. Creating good (field) notes is at the heart of the practice of anthropology.
5
2. Writing
"The one instrument anthropologists have that really
matters is language. The competent anthropologist is a
competent writer. Teaching how to write effectually
should be a core part of the curriculum."1
Virtually every component of a course has at least one written assignment: an essay, a
position paper, a book review, or a thesis. It is therefore important to quickly get the
hang of the appropriate writing skills. This Writing Skills and Style Guide provides the
basis for this.
2.1 Format and Layout
All your written work should be accompanied by a title page with a title, your name, your
student number, the name of the course, the name of the lecturer, the total word count of
your text, and the date. The text should be printed on A4 paper and stapled. Use a generous
layout: a margin of around 2,5 centimeters; a line spacing of 1,5, and a 12-point font. You
must align your text to the left. You are also allowed to justify your text to the right, but
this is not required. Use a font such as Times New Roman or Garamond. Do not forget to
insert page numbers!
2.2 Style: Rules and Tips
Spelling errors, unclear sentences, vague formulations, and repetition can mar the content
of an otherwise strong argument. For these reasons, readers may become frustrated and
quickly give up; these errors will also lessen the persuasiveness and credibility of the
writer. Therefore try to write correctly, precisely, accessibly, and engagingly.2 An
academic article has a different style than a policy document
1
See A. Strating and J. Verrips (2005) A Stickler for Words: An Interview with André J.F. Köbben.
Etnofoor 18(2):9-21). Köbben's quote is on p. 15.
For English language texts, see the short Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association (see http://
www.aaanet.org/publications/style_guide.pdf) or consult the extensive Chicago Manual of Style (14th edition of
later).
2
6
or a newspaper article, but no matter which audience you wish to reach with your text, clear
language is necessary in all cases. Here are a few tips.
Sentence Construction and Use of Language
Avoid nebulousness and cryptic phrases: a text should be clear. Do not use flowery phrases or
complicated jargon to express yourself. Be careful with slang for the same reason and define or
describe anthropological and other social scientific concepts where necessary. Keep your
sentences short. Comprehensibility is important, so the use of grammar should be fairly
simple. Once you get the hang of writing, alternate short sentences with longer ones. It will read
more pleasantly than a choppy text. However, only compose long sentences if you can handle
them properly, and don't get carried away. Get rid of superfluous and redundant clauses.
Avoid archaic and obsolete language; use a neutral style. Avoid colloqualisms ("The book
was awesome," "quite a bit," "yeah, you know,") and use superlatives ("extremely,"
"really," "terribly") sparingly. Don't use sentences with "one" and "you" in papers or theses.
The former is too vague, and the latter too informal. Avoid the first person plural ("In this
essay we will..."). If you are the author, then use "I" (i.e., "In this essay, I will argue that...").
A neutral construction is also possible ("This essay shows that..."). Avoid sentence fragments;
for instance, do not begin sentences with "But...". On the other hand, avoid run-on sentences.
Commonplaces, platitudes, and filler words are taboo. Phrases like "per se," "naturally,"
and "obviously" are better left out. Use "therefore," "consequently" of "so" only if you
conclude something. Avoid repetition and try to vary your vocabulary. Microsoft Word has a
handy thesaurus (shift + F7). If necessary, consult another thesaurus or synonym reference
book. Make sure that you have correctly spelled people's names and geographical locations.
Never assume that the reader (for example, a lecturer) is familiar with your topic and already
knows what you are talking about!
Using Verbs
Use a subject and a verb in every sentence. Use the past tense only if you are referring to
things that happened in the past. If it is your own reasoning, then use the present tense. Do
not continually switch between the present tense and the past tense. Avoid sentences in the
passive form and use the active form. For instance, do not say: "Through the book that was
written by the author..." but instead: "The author states that..."
7
Numbers
Numbers under twenty can be written out (i.e., eighteen, not 18), unless you use some
numbers over twenty within a sentence. For instance: "There were 36 participants in the
course, of whom 18 had passed." "Round" or approximate numbers (sixty, a hundred, a
thousand) may also be written out. Use "the sixties" or "the 1960s" to refer to the decade,
not "the 60s". If you use percentages, do so in numbers (10 percent or 10%). Fractions
should be hyphenated as both adjectives and nouns ("two-thirds of the local
population").
Special words and abbreviatons
It is preferable that you translate words from another language, unless a translation simply
does not do justice to the term. In that case, italicize the word. This can also include emic
terms (for instance, the Trobriand kula ring). If you wish to emphasize something, you may
also use italics (do not use bold font or underlining). Whole sentences that are in another
language are not italicized, but are put in quotation marks. If you wish to distance yourself
from certain words, use quotation marks (Smith writes about "nature"), or preface what you
say. For instance, "Steinmetz discusses so-called natural and cultural nations." In fact, try to
avoid normative concepts altogether: "savages" and "civilization" belong to this category as
well.
8
2.3 The Structure of a Text
In General
A text has a title, an introduction, a main body (empirical material or the "data"), and a
conclusion. The introduction and conclusion are noticeably shorter than the sections in
which you present your empirical data and analyses. The introduction contains the main
question you wish to ask. The subsequent parts (chapters and/or sections) of a thesis or paper
are where you present evidence that provides insight into your question or the answer to your
question. In the conclusion, return to the main question or problem and reiterate the results of
your analysis. If you write a relatively short text such as a paper or an essay, do not provide
a table of contents. A longer text – for instance a thesis – should have a table of contents.
The chapters and sections can be numbered, but do not make very detailed subsections (so
avoid writing something like "Section 3.4.2.1").
Start by making a preliminary outline. Make a schematic overview (an outline or a
writing plan) with a research question, topics per section, and conclusions. Try to make an
initial argument: is the structure logical, and is it clear how you arrived at this answer to your
question? Does every part of the argument connect with the previous part of the argument?
Can you bring all the lines of your argument together in your conclusion? Try early on to
think of a title and subheadings, and create a preliminary outline of the paragraphs in your
essay based on keywords.
A title has two aims: it indicates what the paper is about and it invites you to read the
paper. Subheadings have this double function as well. You can use a combination of mainand subtitles. The main title should speak to the imagination; a subtitle can be more
explanatory. For instance, think of Bronislaw Malinowski’s famous ethnography Argonauts of
the Western Pacific, where the more practical subtitle is: An Account of Native Enterprise and
Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea.
Argumentation, the Introduction, and Posing Questions
A paper or thesis is almost always an argumentative text. You are attempting to prove
something and to convince the reader based on the arguments that you make. This
argument is usually factual (this is the way it is). In addition, there are judgmental stances
(this is my judgment or opinion [as in a book review]) or directional arguments (this is the
way it ought to be [as in a policy document]). An example of a factual argument is: "In
anthropology, 'culture' is at the same time a key concept and a controversial concept."
9
With this position, you will then need to substantiate the arguments and evidence. In this
case, you are looking for information in the form of publications where the culture concept
is discussed and where you show that this ambivalence is corroborated. A position does not
necessarily begin with statements like: "I believe that..."; or "I find that…" (you will then
often be judgmental). However, if you insist on passing a judgment, always also present
your arguments.
List all your arguments and use them to build the structure of your text. Which
argument is the most important? Begin with that one. Are there several arguments that
support your position? Are they equally important? An argument can be:
– singular (there is one argument: "There is no consensus on the definition of
culture.");
– multiple (there are several arguments of equal importance: "There is no consensus on
the definition of culture. Some anthropologists reify the concept, while politicians and
policy makers exploit it for political purposes.");
– juxtaposing (there are inextricably interconnected arguments: "There is no
consensus on the definition of culture and the resulting confusion makes any
insight into the function and meaning of culture feeble.");
– subordinating (there are several arguments of unequal importance: "There is no
consensus on the definition of culture. Each concept must be defined on its own
and in its own specific context.").
A clear argument means that you formulate a response to the question or problem in your
introduction through the presentation of empirical material. The research question that you
formulate must closely follow your argument. This does not necessarily need to be in the
form of a question. "In this essay I will examine if the culture concept is still useful" is just as
clear as "Is the culture concept still useful?" Explain the subject and purpose of your text. A
good introduction is stimulating and often has an argument already built into it. Explain why
the topic is important and which steps you will need to take in order to come to a conclusion.
There is nothing more annoying than reading a text that constantly raises the question: what is
this paper about and why does the author want me to read it? However, never present your
conclusions in the introduction: give your readers a reason to continue reading. The introduction
is just the tip of the iceberg.
Anthropologists usually position themselves within an ongoing debate or in relation
to earlier work or other debates. Decide whether or not you find an author's arguments
convincing and if the author's claims do justice to the person he or she is criticizing.
10
Before writing an anthropological text, it can be useful to trace two or more positions in a
longstanding debate and to ask yourself which position you would choose. Why is the
argument of Author A more convincing than Author B? Can you synthesize their contrasting
conclusions? To do this, you will often need to consult additional literature. Make yourself
familiar with such debates in anthropology. This will stimulate in-depth thinking as you
problematize the positions of the authors, as well as your own position that you are arguing
for.
You can begin an anthropological text in many different ways. Make your readers
curious and speak to them. Attract your readers' attention with a catchy opening sentence or
paragraph, in which you set a burning issue on the agenda. For instance, you can begin by
describing something that touched or intrigued you personally. The introduction can also
involve a good anecdote, for example something from everyday life or the newspaper. You
can also put forth a provocative proposition. Another possibility is to use a quote and a
possible interpretation(s) of it as a stepping stone for the rest of the essay. Following this
opening statement, elaborate upon the theme that you have introduced. This should logically
lead to your main question. An introduction can end with the outline of the structure of your
essay. How will you lay out your argument? However, it can sometimes be too simple if you
write: "In the first paragraph, I will state that"; "Next, I will show how...". Never end an
introduction with superfluous remarks such as "In the conclusion, I will summarize my
findings" or worse still, "I will end with a conclusion."
The Main Body: Chapters, Sections, and Paragraphs
In the main body of the essay, you work your argument out systematically in a number of
chapters and/or sections. The elements of your argument are derived from your main
question. Your main question contains several topics that must all be addressed in this
middle part of the paper. Build your argument cumulatively: each step of the argument
should follow logically from the previous step, and your argument usually increases in
complexity. Use sub-headings every time you begin a new section with a new topic. Write
your sub-headings in bold font and add a blank line afterwards. If you decide to use subsections, then italicize your sub-subheadings.
Each chapter and/or each section is a balanced component of the entire text. Lead your
readers clearly in and out of each chapter or section. The sub-heading at the beginning of a
new section signals that you are transferring to another part of your argument, and that a new
11
(sub) topic will be discussed. Indicate this clearly at the beginning of the section and at the
conclusion of each section, make sure that you have a couple of transition sentences that will
help lead the reader into the next section. A section usually consists of several paragraphs.
Each paragraph begins on a new line (do not put blank lines between each paragraph) and
with an indentation (with the exception of the first paragraph after a section heading, which
begins at the margin). In a paragraph, you usually address a coherent sub-topic. One
paragraph usually consists of several sentences. Sections and paragraphs together form a wellwritten idea, where you continue to take the reader step by step through your argument.
Begin a section or paragraph with the most important idea that you wish to communicate
to your readers (the main or core sentence). The main sentence may announce or reveal
something, or it may be an argument. An example of the former is: "To understand how order
is possible in a society without central authority, we must analyze the role of the mediators in
the conflict." An argumentative core sentence can be: "Conflicts can lead to order and
equilibrium." Then elaborate upon the sstatement in depth, and end the paragraph with a
concluding sentence or two that acts as a stepping-stone to the next paragraph. Distinguish
between primary and secondary issues. Minimize the tendency to digress and go off on a
tangent. You can digress slightly, but only if it is useful for your argument. If you wish to make
relevant comments on the side, then make use of foot- or endnotes. To avoid any gaps in your
argument, create good transitions from chapter to chapter and/or from section to section. With
the help of "bridges" (connecting words and sentences) and structural signposts ("firstly,"
"next," "finally," "in conclusion," "in sum"), you can try to make the paragraphs and sections
hang together more clearly. Ask yourself how each section contributes to your argument. It is
crucial that the various elements of your argument (structured in chapters, sections, and
paragraphs) are linked to each other in order to form an elegant whole. At the beginning and
end of each section, you can indicate how this part of the argument is connected to your central
question.
The Conclusion
In the main body, you work towards a conclusion by providing answers to your central
question in a number of different chapters and/or sections. Thus, the conclusion follows
logically from the main body. A conclusion has no new empirical data, since you have already
presented the facts upon which you have built your argument. In the conclusion, you bring all
the threads of your argument(s) together. You return to the central question and show how
you have answered it.
12
First present a succinct recap of your argument. Then you formulate an answer to your
question as concisely as possible. Try to do this in a more reflective or contemplative
way than you did in the middle. Once again, attempt to connect all the parts of your
conclusion in a smooth and readable manner, and take care to avoid repetitive or
redundant sentences. For example, avoid writing sentences like "My main research
question was… and my conclusion is…." If you opened your essay with an anecdote,
then try to return to it in the conclusion. Pay attention to your final sentence. Never end
a paper with an open door, a worn phrase, or a dead-end statement like "more research
is needed."
2.4 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Referencing
If you quote an author, put the quote between "double" quotation marks. Use a default or
standard font that is the same as the body of the essay (do not use italics, a different font, or a
smaller font). After the quote - and in parentheses - cite the last name of the author, the year
of the publication, a colon, a space, and the page number (or page numbers) where you can find
the passage. The period or full stop comes after the final parenthesis, as in: The author states
that "site provision was equated with settlement" (Okely 1983: 113).
If there are words that are also in quotation marks in the selected passage, then use
'single' quotation marks within the quote. The quote therefore might look like this: "Although
in the dominant society’s law the words 'temporary' and 'permanent' ostensibly refer only to the
length of planning permission ..., the Travellers correctly interpreted 'permanent' as
'settled'" (Okely 1983: 113-114).
As in the example above and here, use an ellipsis (...) whenever you omit a word or a
phrase in a quotation. Use a four period ellipsis when you omit a word or words at the end of a
sentence....
If you quote several sentences (at least three lines in your text), then create a block
quote. Put the quote between two blank lines, indent on the left (and possibly also the right to
create a 'hanging' indent) and omit the quotation marks at the beginning and end of the passage:
Although in the dominant society’s law the words ‘temporary’ and ‘permanent’ ostensibly
refer only to the length of planning permission ..., the Travellers correctly interpreted
‘permanent’ as ‘settled’. The authorities feared that temporary sites with minimum
13
provision would be used as ‘transit’ sites. The notion of the ‘transit’ site is generally
misplaced, since it presumes that there are two ‘types’ of Travellers (Okely 1983: 113-114).
Note that you use single quotation marks if there are quotes within the block quote.
If you wish to emphasize a word or a passage in a quote, and if the author does not do
it her- or himself, then write the following: "The notion of the 'transit' site is generally
misplaced, since it presumes that there are two 'types' of Travellers" (Okely 1983: 114, my
emphasis, RvG [=intials of the person who did the emphasizing]). If the emphasis is in the
original quoted text, then write: (Okely 1983: 114, emphasis in the original).
If you want to add a few words to a quote in order to clarify something, then do this in
between square brackets: "The authorities [in other words, the local government] feared that
temporary sites with minimum provision would be used as 'transit' sites" (Okely 1983: 114).
When you cite a source in another source, you must do so carefully. For instance,
Okely cites a government report in her text, so you must clearly indicate this: Okely cites a
government report that states that "[a] variety of provision is probably the answer" (M.H.L.G.
1967: 55, cited in Okely 1983: 114). You do not need to include the first source in the
reference list, but you must include Okely 1983. Because the sentence cited in Okely begins
with a capital letter, put the lower-case letter in square brackets to keep the flow of the
sentence; for example: "[a] variety …." Alternatively, you can use a colon to maintain the
initial capital: Okely cites a government report that states: "A variety …".
Try to integrate quotes within your text in order to create clear, flowing sentences.
Two examples: "We have to study man, and we must study what concerns him most
intimately, that is, the hold which life has on him," wrote Malinowski
(1978: 35). As Thomas Hylland Eriksen (2001:263) states, "ethnicity occurs when cultural
differences are made relevant through interaction." Because you quote a full sentence in
both examples, the quotation mark at the end follows the comma or period (," ."). A quote
should be introduced and then followed up. In other words, make it clear what you want to
prove with the quote. In most cases, you follow the quote with an analytical or explanatory
sentence.
A paper or thesis never consists of a series of quotes. Avoid frequently quoting verbatim
from someone else; use quotes sparingly. You can also paraphrase and cite an author. This means
that you reproduce an author's idea in your own words. The rule of thumb is: do not quote if
you can paraphrase better.
14
Nota bene: make sure you cite the quote carefully and accurately, since you could possibly
distort the original meaning intended by the author.
When you paraphrase, you refer to the publication with the author's name, publication
year, and page number(s) between parentheses; for example: (Okely 1983: 113-114). When you
use multiple authors and texts, separate their entries with a semicolon and a space; for instance:
(Geertz 1983: 12; Okely 1983: 113-114). If you refer to an entire text, just use the author's last
name and year of publication; for example: (Geertz 1983). If you quote or refer to the same text
more than several times in the same text, then use ibid. (note: without a capital letter, no italics,
use a period). To exemplify: Okely states that Travellers have specific notions about cleanliness
(1983: 80- 86). They find soap unclean (ibid.: 82). Note that the name of the author in the first
sentence is referred to in the text, so it does not need to be referred to in the reference. Another
option is: Okely (1983: 80-86) states that Travellers have specific notions about cleanliness. This
author-year-page number reference style is standard for authors of anthropological texts. Be
systematic and mention the authors of the texts upon which you base your own work: not only
when you quote or paraphrase, but also every time you use a concept or idea from another
author.
2.5 Preventing Plagiarism
It must be completely clear, verifiable, and unambiguous which authors and which publications
you have used as sources for your writing. The rule of thumb is "Give credit where credit is
due." Quoting without acknowledgement or using an idea without mentioning its source is
plagiarism. This applies to paraphrasing as well. Always mention the source of your ideas and
information, even if you use a passage from your previously submitted work or anything written
by your fellow students. The UvA has "Rules for Fraud and Plagiarism for UvA Students",
which are strictly enforced. You can download it here:
(http://student.uva.nl/binaries/content/assets/studentensites/fdr/rechten-bachelors-en-masters/
thesis-master/fraud-and-plagiarism.pdf?1263296582000). All written work must be digitally
uploaded into Ephorus in order to check for plagiarism. However, most lecturers can quickly
tell if there is something fishy with your written work. If you get caught, you must appear
before the Examinations Board. It is compulsory for lecturers to report to the Board with any
suspicions of plagiarism. If the Board finds that the work has indeed been plagiarized,
15
then a sanction will follow. These can vary from a "zero" grade to a suspension from
the university.
How do you avoid plagiarism?
Avoid cutting-and-pasting text. When you make notes on the books and articles that you
read, do not forget to add where you found the information (author, title, year, page numbers;
a precise weblink with access date, publication date of the newspaper, etc.). Use clear
quotation marks whenever you directly quote anything. If you translate something directly,
you must still use quotation marks. If you paraphrase or write anything in your own words,
remember to cite the passage correctly (including page numbers). When you work your notes
into a paper or a thesis, always remember to accurately cite the source or sources (author[s],
year, date, publication; weblink or periodical with date) every time you base your text on
someone else's work. This will make it easier to distinguish between what you derive from
others and what your own analysis and interpretation is.
2.6 Literature References
In a reference list at the end of a paper or thesis, you must state which sources (e.g.,
texts, websites) you refer to in your text. The rules can differ depending on discipline,
publisher, or journal. For our courses we use the format below. All lecturers and
students must know what makes a reference list satisfactory. If you learn these
conventions at the beginning of your course of study, it will make things easier later on.
In the reference list, make sure that you include all of the references that you have
listed. Do not reference any literature that is not mentioned in the text. Always italicize the titles
of books and journals. Do this also when you use the titles in the main text ("Malinowski’s
1922 ethnography Argonauts of the Western Pacific is considered a classic."). The order of the
entries is listed alphabetically by the last name of the author. Be consistent. For instance, if you
have chosen to use the full first name or names of the author and not their initial or initials, then
do so for each reference.
If you use several works by the same author, list them chronologically by year. You do
not need to repeat the name of the author every time (although this is not prohibited). If there
are several references published in the same year by the same author, then add a lower case
letter after the year (1983a, 1983b, 1983c).
16
Do this also within your text. When there are two different authors with the same last name,
then you can add the first initial of their name to the in-text citation (B. Acheson 2000; T.
Acheson 1968). If T. Acheson and F. Barth co-authored an article in 1980, then write
(Acheson and Barth 1980) – without initials. Write (ed.) after the last name of the editor of
a collected volume (see Barth 2001 below for an example). Note that Barth 2001 does not
appear between Barth 2000c and 2010, because you must distinguish between edited work
and single-authored texts. If the book or article is written by more than three authors, then
only name the first author, followed by 'et al' (see below for Barth et al. 2005). If you refer
to an author like de Amato (1980) or van Gennep (1960), insert the name under d or v in
the reference list (in lower case).
Sometimes the original date of a publication predates the version that you are
consulting. Within the text, you can write the following: (Castafori 1976 [1968]: 310). In the
references you can put the original date of the publication in brackets directly after the year of
the publication that you are using, or add it after the reference entry (see Castafori below in the
sample references).
Sample References
A sample reference list is below:
Acheson, B. [or Ben]
2000 Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 20=volume(2=issue):
100(=first page)-120(=last page).
Acheson, T. [or Tina]
1968 Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 39(4): 3-28.
Acheson, T. [or Tina] and F. [or Fredrik] Barth
1980 Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 12(1): 338-361.
Barth, F. [or Fredrik]
1999 Article Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 19(1): 90-100.
2000a Book Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher.
2000b Article Title. Journal Name 20(2): 121-140.
2000c Chapter in an Edited Volume. In: B. [or Ben] Acheson (ed.), Title:
Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher, pp. 3-19.
2010 Chapter in a Self Authored Book. In: Book Title: Subtitle. Place Name:
Publisher, pp. 48-61.
Barth, F. [or Fredrik] (ed.)
2001 Volume Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher.
Barth, F. [or Fredrik] et al.
2005 Article Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 3(12):988-1012.
Castafori, N. [or Nina]
1976 [1968] Book Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher.
or:
Castafori, N. [or Nina]
1976 Book Title: Subtitle. Location: Publisher [1968].
17
de Amato, A. [or Alex]
1980 Book Title: Subtitle. Location: Publisher
van Gennep, A. [or Arnold]
1960 Book Title: Subtitle. Location: Publisher
There are also some special cases. If there are quotation marks in the title of a book
or article, then write the following:
Altorki, Soraya
1982 The Anthropologist in the Field: A Case of "Indigenous Anthropology" from
Saudi Arabia. In: Hussein Fahim (ed.), Indigenous Anthropology in NonWestern Countries. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, pp. 167-175.
Be consistent with capital letters. Shorter words (in, the, and, from) do not begin with capital
letters.
If you need to reference an article, report, collection, or book without an author, then
use the first word or words of the title, or use "Anonymous." For instance:
Famine Relief (or Anonymous)
2002
Famine relief: Just a simple matter of supplying food? Nutrition Noteworthy, 5(1).
In the text, cite it as (Famine Relief 2002) of (Anonymous 2002).
If it is a group or an institution – such as the Social and Cultural Planning Bureau – you
can use the name of the group as the author or editor:
Animal Studies Group (ed.)
2006 Killing Animals. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
In the text, you can write (Animal Studies Group 2006).
Referencing Internet Sources
Authors are increasingly making use of information on websites. But beware - not all the sites
you consult are valid, accurate, or useful. Internet sources often have no editorial or peer
review process. The quality of an article that you find on a website can be equally excellent or
lousy, so try to refrain from using too many internet sources unless they are directly relevant to
your subject. For example, if you wish to use a definition of a topic, it is better to consult an
actual textbook or an encyclopedia in the library (or in the UvA digital library).
18
If you use internet sources, then write the name of the author, year, title, URL, and the date that
you accessed the piece, as follows:
Song, Priscilla
1999 Malinowski's New Home: Malinowski and the Development of Fieldwork Methods.
http://classes.yale.edu/02-03/anth500a/projects/project_sites/99_Song/default.htm.
(accessed 19/4/2013).
The reason why you give the date that you accessed the document is because information
doesn't always remain on the web, or web addresses can change over time. In the main
text, cite the source as usual: (Song 1999). Similarly, you can cite an online newspaper
article as follows:
Schabner, Dean
2002 Culture Clash. ABC News, 29 May 2002.
http://abcnews.go.com/sections/us/DailyNews/makah020529.html.
(26/10/2010).
In the main text, you refer to (Schabner 2002).
Notes
Webpages often lack authors or titles. The usual way to refer to your source in this case is
by using a footnote or endnote (a long URL in the text looks unwieldy). You can, for
example, use a footnote in this way.3 Always put the footnote after the period. Information
based on personal communication, lectures, or conference papers can be added to footnotes
or endnotes. Indicate who gave the talk, the location, and the date.4 If you cite an anonymous
newspaper article, write the name of the newspaper in italics, followed by the date (The New
York Times, 28 August 2013).
Anthropologists generally try to limit their use of footnotes or endnotes. They usually
use them to cite an internet resource, to provide a longer list of literature, or to explain
something in more detail. With explanatory notes like this, you have more room to elaborate
upon something that may not fit in the main text, but use them sparingly and only if they are
relevant.
3
4
See http://mindprod.com/feedback/racism.html (26/10/2010).
Yolanda van Ede, lecture in Designing Fieldwork, 11 September, 2013.
19
Furthermore, make sure that you are consistent with using either footnotes or endnotes;
never use both in the same text.
2.7 Figures, Illustrations, and Tables
There are relatively few tables and graphs in most anthropological publications, since our
discipline is more oriented towards qualitative research. If you wish to use tables and
graphs, refer to them in the text (see Table 1) and provide an expanatory caption in italics
(Table 1. Number and geographical origin of women with nose piercings in France). When
you make use of an already-existing table or graph, remember to credit the source of the
data. Most figures – such as maps or plans – can be reproduced, if the source is cited
properly. Sometimes you will have to draw your own figures. The same goes for diagrams
and tables. Do not make them too complicated, since they are supposed to help make the
data in your text clearer. You can also use photographs. After all, "a picture is worth a
thousand words." However, a photo usually needs an explanatory caption, where you show
why the photo is relevant for a particular passage.
2.8 The Revision Phase
Note that your text will almost never be satisfactory after a single round of writing. You learn
how to write and rewrite by doing so regularly and systematically. Look critically at what you
have written and do not worry about deleting it. Make active sentence constructions instead of
passive ones. Revise poorly written sentences, delete unnecessary words and phrases, and
watch out for "filler" words. "Kill your darlings" should be your motto. If you are unsure of
what you are saying, omit that passage; when in doubt, leave it out. Assess whether or not the
structure of your text is logical, and if necessary, move your sentences accordingly. Avoid
abrupt changes in topics by introducing the next issue in a few words or sentences. It is
common to revise a text several times. Ask yourself the following questions about the
argumentation, structure, and style of your work:
Argumentation
Do you outline a clear research problem, and is it original, challenging, and innovative?
Do you explain the kind of argument you wish to make? Does the text include a clear
20
argument that answers the research question? Do you show how your evidence substantiates
your argument? Is the argument factually correct? Can it be made sharper? Do you put the
core of the matter center-stage? Have you looked for evidence that could refute your
position, and is this reflected in your argument? Do you contradict yourself? Have you
defined important concepts? Do you refer to your sources systematically and precisely?
Have you provided the correct citations? Do they add to the argument or do you use too
many quotes? Will it be better to paraphrase? Is it possible to make the quotes shorter? Does
your conclusion demonstrate a critical dialogue with the wider debate? Is the conclusion
justified, based on the evidence that you presented?
Structure
Is the structure of chapters, sections, and paragraphs clear? Do you repeat ideas that can
more easily be summarized in one sentence? Are they logically connected together in order
to form a coherent whole? Have you created appropriate and relevant sub-headings? Do your
statements follow a logical order? Do you avoid abrupt transitions? Does the text work as a
whole with a clear conclusion? Do you return in the conclusion to the research problem that
you formulated in the introduction? When you put all of the key sentences of each
paragraph together consecutively, does this build a logical argument? Do you see any
missing steps or is there any repetition?
Style
Is the text written well (syntax, use of language, a variety of short and long sentences, correct
punctuation, consistent verb tenses, active form, a clear style)? Can your sentences be simpler
and more direct? Have you proofread your grammar and spelling? Have you deleted all
repetitive and vague sentences? Have you used concrete terms to replace abstract ones? Have
you deleted all worn phrases and ambiguous terminology? Can non-anthropologists also
understand your text? Does your text correspond to the correct format? Does the bibliography
or reference list contain all of the citations in your text? Have you written the references in the
correct format?
Let someone else read and comment on your work. A sharp second reader is worth their
weight in gold. Note that the text that you submit for comments does not have to be perfect.
Take advantage of this situation to carefully revise and rewrite your paper. Stick with it.
After your revision, carefully and critically read the text again in order to improve it where
21
needed. This process can (and should) be repeated several times, but remember that you will
have to finish the paper and hand it in. A missed deadline is a missed chance. If you wish to
read more about writing academic texts, you can go to (in Dutch) http://www.taalwinkel.nl.
One English-language option is http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/. The rules
presented above refer to all the written work you will hand in during your course of study, but
keep in mind that other kinds of texts may have their own specific requirements.
2.9 Types of Assignments
Essays or Papers
An essay or a paper is not a summary of a topic, but a structured discussion backed up by data
and references. These are facts and data that you obtain by studying anthropological and other
social scientific texts, and are sometimes supplemented by data from your own independent
research. Essays and papers are usually brief; in social scientific journals, published articles
are usually no more than 6000 or 7000 words. There is no need to create a table of contents.
Again, make sure that your paper or essay is not simply a summary, but a carefully
constructed piece of writing based on a solid, convincing core argument.
Position Papers
A position paper succinctly summarizes the argument of one (or more) article(s). You then
substantiate and write a critical commentary of the article(s) based on what you've read
from other texts. The commentary can be positive or negative. Based on this, you also
formulate one or more question(s) or discussion points that you present in a working
group. A position paper consists of no more than two A4 pages (line spacing 1,5).
QAQL (or KAVV)
A QAQL stands for: Quote, Argument, Question, and Linkage. Writing a QAQL forces
you to think about and reflect upon the study materials, and in addition teaches you to
recognize and formulate arguments. A QAQL consists of no more than one A4 page (1,5
spacing). You choose what you believe is an important quote (remember to note the page
number); show which argument(s) the author presents; formulate a question based on the
reading, and demonstrate how it links or relates to another text.
22
Book Reviews
A book review is short. Most social science journals ask for a maximum length of 800 to
1200 words. Only a review essay, where several related thematic or theoretical works are
discussed together, is longer. Put all the relevant bibliographic data about the book at the top
of the page and then leave a blank line. Use paragraphs but not headings. Only cite specific
pages of the book if you use a) direct quotes or b) refer to a crucial passage. You usually do
not refer to other literature, but if you do, you must reference these texts properly at the end
of the text. A review usually involves the following: the problem and objectives of the book
(what the author wishes to prove); the theoretical framework (what is the main argument);
the methods used (how were the data obtained); a short synopsis (how is it structured and
what is in each chapter), and who the book is intended for (the audience of readers). A
review requires a well-grounded critique: is the author sucessful in achieving his/her
intentions and aims?; does the author give a satisfactory answer to their research
question(s)?; is the book sufficiently in-depth and well-organized?; is the analysis
systematic and sound?; does the work contribute to innovative conceptual and/or theoretical
debates?; is the format and writing style clear?
Abstracts
Any article in a social science journal is almost always accompanied by an abstract: a short
summary of about 100 to 250 words that explains the key points of the article. Most abstracts
are in English, but occasionally there are versions in other languages. It functions as a short
introduction to the overall content and relevance of the article. Along with the introduction
and conclusion of an article, an abstract gives you a good indication of whether or not it will
be worth reading the entire piece. If you have to write an abstract, make sure that the most
important points of the article (research question[s], aims/goals, and argument) are included
and that it is clear which region(s) and theme(s) you are dealing with.
Annotated Bibliographies
A bibliography is a descriptive list of literature about a region, a theme, or of a single
author (literature references at the end of an essay, paper, or thesis are rarely considered a
bibliography). An annotation is an explanatory note or brief description of the content of
each text.
23
In an annotated bibliography, an annotation is often written in a similar manner as an
abstract. You are basically summarizing the book or article. An annotation rarely is more
than 300 words. The reference preceeds the annotation and follows the rules presented
above.
Theses
A thesis is a longer discussion of a specific topic. A thesis is not mandatory for the
bachelor program; individual writing skills are assessed via the papers for thematic
modules. The final assessment of the bachelor program is a presentation/oral exam (see
Chapter 3, Presentations). You can certainly write a bachelor thesis as an optional
component of the program. This is often done on the basis of a literature study, sometimes
supplemented by a short piece of (individual or collective) empirical research.
It is mandatory to write a thesis - usually based on empirical research - in the master
program CSA. Setting up an individual research project is done in conjunction with
intensive guidance in groups as well as one-on-one with a supervisor. The supervision
focuses on formulating a clear, well-defined, and operationalized research question and
developing a useful methodological, conceptual, and theoretical framework: the research
proposal. A high degree of autonomy is also expected of students; this is especially
important when you conduct your fieldwork.
In the master thesis, you use the empirical data you have gathered to answer the
research question. The maximum word count of a master thesis is 25000 words. The structure
and style of the thesis must meet the requirements set out in this Writing Skills and Style
Guide. Unlike shorter papers, the thesis has a table of contents and often a foreword or
acknowledgements (this is mostly personal and to thank your informants and friends). Make
sure that the page numbers that you mention in the table of contents correspond with the
correct page numbers of the chapters and sections in your thesis. A well-defined research
problem and a systematic analysis of the data you have gathered in the field (the
"ethnography") are required to pass. Your main research question is usually accompanied by
several sub-questions that relate to the main question and help to structure your argument.
You need to account for the methodology, theories, and concepts you have used. The same
goes for the aim and scholarly (and possibly social) relevance of the thesis. There should be a
balance between empirical and theoretical material:
24
a thesis with an excess of unnecessary theoretical jargon and a thin ethnographic foundation
is just as flawed as a thesis with an overabundance of barely analyzed empirical data that
does not relate to any theoretical discussion. A thesis that contributes to an anthropological
debate in a well-founded and innovative way can get a high mark. You may add appendices
to your thesis, but limit their number and length. Examples of master theses can be found
online through the UvA website (http://www.scriptiesonline.uba.uva.nl). They are made
public unless the author of the thesis objects.
Making an anthropological film as part of your thesis is possible, but it is never the
final end product. A documentary should always be accompanied by a (short) paper on the
subject as well. The precise length of the paper is dependent on the overall nature and length
of the documentary, but usually comprises about half the length of a regular thesis
(maximum 12500 words). In this kind of thesis, it is mandatory to provide a critical
reflection on the visual methodological approach. Just like theses, documentaries must meet
specific requirements. A Visual Anthropology course will provide general guidelines, but
each case is dependent on further consultation with the supervisor.
Each master thesis is assessed by a committee of three. This consists of the supervisor
and two readers who may not be familiar with the work. In a conversation of about one hour,
the committee comments on the thesis, and the two readers ask the student questions about
the thesis. Try to answer to the best of your ability. The anthropology program is dedicated
to making a solid assessment of the thesis. These "oral defenses" have often proven to be
fascinating and instructive conversations, not only for the student, but also for the committee
members.
25
3. Presentations
Academics are expected to convey their ideas not only through writing, but also through oral
presentations given in front of a wider audience. In the program, you should therefore present
your work on a regular basis, since you will finish the bachelor CA/DS with a presentation
and oral exam. It is important that you practice giving presentations as early as possible in
order to try to overcome any shyness or nervousness. The purpose of a presentation is to
demonstrate that you are capable of giving a short talk on a scientific topic in an
understandable, clear, and interesting manner. The main idea is to bring your data or findings
together in a form that is both informative and enjoyable for the audience to listen to and
watch.
3.1 What to do/What not to do
A good presentation is a performance with a central argument. You will usually have a
limited amount of time to deliver your main points. Make sure you get your most
important points across in an organized manner, so that you do not get sidetracked by
tangents. You run the risk of quickly losing your listeners this way. Manage your time by
practicing well in advance, and learn how to make your argument in the allotted time
without rushing. Prepare how you want to deliver your main argument; just like in a
written text, a clear argument is more engaging than a long story without a point. Make
your listeners curious about your topic!
How do you reach and persuade your audience? You usually stand up when you give a
presentation, but you can also present while sitting if standing up makes you feel
uncomfortable. Introduce yourself (if a chairperson is not present) and explain what your
presentation is about (the title and main themes). Begin for example with an anecdote, a
personal experience, a news feature, a rhetorical question, an enigma, or a particular position.
Your audience will likely pay more attention to you if you begin with a catchy opening. Next,
explain how the content of your presentation will be structured. Remember that reading a
written text word-for-word is often a letdown for your listeners. The argument is also difficult
to follow because the presenter often speaks too fast for the audience to follow. Furthermore,
remember that written language is not the same as spoken language.
26
Write down a few key words and phrases that you can use to guide your talk, and
only read out a quote if it is necessary for your argument. Use tools or media (PowerPoint, a
video clip, whiteboard, etc.) in order to animate and support your talk. Do not do much more
than that - there is nothing more boring than listening to someone read out each PowerPoint
slide word-for-word. Try not to be put out if the equipment fails; you should still be prepared
to give a presentation without PowerPoint. Make a connection with your audience. If
possible, try to involve them in your presentation (even if it's a simple "Am I being clear
here?"). Do not speak too fast or too slow, nor too quietly or too loudly. Articulate and
enunciate your words in a clear manner. You may gesture with your hands, but don't go
overboard.
Do not expect your listeners to be receptive to every single detail of your presentation.
Put your emphasis on the most important points and repeat them if necessary. You may
explain some aspects of any specific knowledge that you have, but do not expand on this too
much. If the other students have read the same literature, then it is important that you present
only a very concise summary, and move towards a new, original perspective, or to
emphasize your own point of view.
It is therefore important to use a logical, well-built structure that leads to a clear
conclusion. You can lay out this structure in your introduction: "First, I will discuss…,"
"then…," "finally…". Repeat the central point at the end of each section and say when you
will come to the next point. This gives your listeners - and yourself - something to hold on
to. A handout can sometimes also be helpful. Make your narrative clear and be sure that
the order of topics is (chrono)logical. Carefully time your talk, as you will need to finish
your conclusion before the allotted time is up. "I see that the time is almost up, so I'll leave
it here" is not a good way of concluding. Make sure you can finish your talk with a brief
sentence or two.
After thanking your audience for listening, give them the opportunity to ask you some
questions. Repeating their question shows that you have understood them and ensures that the
rest of the audience can hear the question as well. Try to answer the question to the best of
your ability and in a clear and concise manner. You can often get the audience on your side if
you say that the question is interesting, good, or correct. It is nothing to worry about if the
questioner provides criticism. A fascinating discussion or debate can also be another
27
outcome, and the audience can feel more strongly involved in the presentation. On the other
hand, never make snide remarks about the person asking the question or about the quality of
the question itself (e.g., "That's a silly question"). You'll easily lose the audience's sympathy
if you do this!
3.2 Public Speaking
Public speaking, even in front of a very small audience, often leads to some nervousness.
You are certainly not alone, and in fact, many presentations have gone wrong without any
fear, stress, or tension. Practicing your talk is very important, as is good preparation. If you
sometimes need to let a bit of silence go by because you cannot find the right words, it will
certainly not be a disaster, since this is a natural human response. The same applies if you
occasionally stumble over your words. However, if the very thought of having to present
something in front of an audience makes you queasy, then you can attend training sessions to
work on your public speaking skills.
28