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Fugro Airborne Surveys Ltd.
De Beers Canada Corporation.
De Beers Canada Corporation.
Diavik Diamond Mines Inc.
De Beers Canada Corporation.
KIM Dynamics.
BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.
De Beers Canada Corporation.
De Beers Canada Corporation.
Discovering
Diamonds
A Canadian Earth Science
Curriculum Resource
for Senior High School
A PROSPECTORS AND DEVELOPERS ASSOCIATION OF CANADA MINING MATTERS PROJECT
Cover images generously provided by De Beers Canada Corporation,
Fugro Airborne Surveys Limited, Diavik Diamond Mines Inc.,
KIM Dynamics, and BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.
Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada Mining Matters
provides educators and students with the tools they need to
make informed decisions about the minerals industry.
Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada Mining Matters
900-34 King Street East
Toronto, Ontario
M5C 2X8
Tel: 416.362.1969 x 228
Fax: 416.362.0101
Email: [email protected]
Web site: www.pdac.ca/miningmatters
© 2006 Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada Mining Matters
Table of Contents
Foreword.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction
Resource Description........................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Learning Objectives.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Structure.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Activity Design ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Topic 1 The Earth’s Interior u Where are diamonds formed?
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Differentiated Earth.................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Seismic Waves...........................................................................................................................................................................................19
Seismometer Design................................................................................................................................................................................27
Shadow Zones...........................................................................................................................................................................................35
Topic 2 Tectonic Processes u How do diamonds reach the surface?
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................................................49
Plate Boundaries and Stable Cratons...................................................................................................................................................51
The Formation of Diamond Indicator Minerals................................................................................................................................61
Volcanic Eruptions and Kimberlites.....................................................................................................................................................67
Topic 3 Surficial Processes and the Rock Cycle u What happens when diamonds reach the surface?
3.0
3.1
3.2 3.3
3.4
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................................................75
The Rock Cycle..........................................................................................................................................................................................77
Alluvial Processes.....................................................................................................................................................................................85
Glacial Processes . ....................................................................................................................................................................................95
Stratigraphic Detectives........................................................................................................................................................................111
Topic 4 The Science of Exploration u How are diamonds found?
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................119
Geophysics as a Tool to Locate Kimberlites.....................................................................................................................................121
A Case Study — Using Indicator Minerals to Locate Kimberlites..............................................................................................129
A Case Study — Using Garnet Chemistry to Find Diamond-Bearing Kimberlites................................................................139
Soil Survey................................................................................................................................................................................................153
A Case Study — Using Soil Geochemistry to Locate Kimberlites..............................................................................................165
Topic 5 Diamond Mining in Canada and the Mining Sequence u How are diamonds mined
and processed? What happens when a mine closes? What do diamonds mean to Canadians?
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................175
Canada’s First Diamond Mines............................................................................................................................................................177
Processing Diamonds.............................................................................................................................................................................197
Reclamation..............................................................................................................................................................................................205
The Career Connection.........................................................................................................................................................................213
A Multi-Faceted Industry.....................................................................................................................................................................229
Addendum
Curriculum Expectations................................................................................................................................................................................239
Contributors.........................................................................................................................................................................................................255
Appendices
Glossary of Key Words.....................................................................................................................................................................................259
Additional Resources................................................................................................................................................................................... sleeve
Foreword
Discovering Diamonds is a one-of-a-kind resource designed to bring the riches of Canadian diamonds into high
school classrooms across Canada. Using authentic data and generously donated materials, 21 activities illustrate
real-world experience with diamonds — not just theories and concepts. Young Canadians will learn about the
country’s world-class diamond-bearing deposits, diamond formation, and the modern technology being applied to the
discovery, extraction, and processing of diamonds. The diamond industry uses innovative technology in this topical
Earth science field, and the industry’s contributions to Discovering Diamonds make it a valuable support to the
school curriculum. Discovering Diamonds provides educators with a unique and relevant resource to communicate
Earth science concepts, and offers students opportunities for experiential learning and scientific investigation.
Acknowledgements
Discovering Diamonds has been developed with the participation and support of many partners. Prospectors and
Developers Association of Canada (PDAC) Mining Matters provided project management and funding.
PDAC Mining Matters provides educators and students with the tools they need to make informed decisions about
the minerals industry. Since 1994, this charitable organization has reached more than 400,000 teachers and students
through educational resources that promote the importance of rocks, metals, minerals, mining, and Canada’s geology.
Project developer Stella Heenan applies her background of science and classroom teaching to the creation of
numerous outstanding resources to promote the inclusion of Earth science in school curricula. With a M.Sc. in Earth
sciences and post-graduate specialized teaching qualifications in many areas of education, Stella is actively associated
with universities and science education advocacy groups across Canada. She was delighted with the opportunity to
work with PDAC Mining Matters to develop her idea that students could experience the many and varied topics in
high school Earth science through the fascinating story of a diamond’s life with the theme Discovering Diamonds.
Project Manager Laura Clinton is a graduate of the University of Toronto’s Specialist Program in Environmental
Science. Through PDAC Mining Matters and her educational consulting company, Pangaea Education, Laura
has developed highly specialized expertise as an educational workshop facilitator, public speaker, and curriculum
developer. The integration of Discovering Diamonds into the high school curriculum is of great interest to Laura.
She believes that collaboration between industry, government, and teachers in educational programming guarantees
excellence in the education of students about Earth science and mining as a vital sector of the Canadian economy.
This project benefited significantly from the technical guidance and resources of the following:
Technical Guidance
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Adrian Renzetti, Secondary Curriculum Leader, Program Services, Upper Grand District School Board
Ann Jackson, Math Science Program Leader, St. Thomas Aquinas Catholic High School, Catholic District School Board of Eastern Ontario
Sara Harrison, Project Geologist, BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.
Hayley McLean, Geotechnician, BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.
Deana Twissell, Senior External Affairs Officer, BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.
Ross Kelly, Manager, Geochemistry and Mapping, Ontario Geological Survey
Harvey Thorleifson, Professor, University of Minnesota, and Director, Minnesota Geological Survey
Bruce Wyatt, De Beers Canada Exploration Incorporated
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
James McParland, Upper Canada District
School Board
Janet Reid, Ontario Geological Survey
Hamish Sandeman, Diamond Geologist,
Northwest Territories Geoscience Office
Ashton Mining of Canada Inc.
BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc.
De Beers Canada Corporation
Diavik Diamond Mines Incorporated
Fugro Airborne Surveys Limited
Government of Nunavut, Department of Economic Development and Transportation
Geoscience Laboratories
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) Consortium
Intierra Limited
KIM Dynamics
Mining Association of Canada
Mining Industry Human Resources (MiHR) Council
Mobile Metal Ion (MMI) Technology
Natural Resources Canada
Northern Ink Limited
Ontario Geological Survey, Ministry of Northern Development and Mines
Ontario Mining Association
Teck Cominco Limited
University of Waterloo, Department of Earth Sciences
Introduction
Resource Description
Discovering Diamonds contains 21 activities that bring in elements from every area of Earth science — from
earthquakes to environment, cratons to chemicals. As much as possible, authentic data and materials generously
provided by members of the diamond industry have been used to create the activities. Images, data, and fact sheets
required for the resource are provided on the enclosed CD-ROM. A specimen of kimberlite, indicator minerals,
the book Canada’s Northern Diamonds: from rocks to riches, a map, and two CDs entitled Diavik: Constructing the
Legacy and Diamonds from the Tundra: The EKATI Story have been provided as additional resources. Students will
see real-world applications of Earth science concepts and theories being presented. A comprehensive Glossary has
also been included, to define Earth science vocabulary introduced throughout.
The goal of Discovering Diamonds is to use diamonds as an integrating theme through which to study the concepts
expected in a senior-level Earth science course. Students will investigate several topics: where diamonds are formed;
how diamonds reach the surface; how the first diamonds were discovered; how diamond-bearing kimberlites are
found; and the diamond industry in Canada.
Learning Objectives
u To provide young Canadians with insight into how modern technology is being applied to the discovery,
extraction, and processing of diamond resources
u To offer students opportunities for hands-on learning and scientific investigation in Earth science
u To provide teachers with a unique and relevant resource to communicate Earth science concepts
u To provide teachers with knowledge, resources, and training to enhance the delivery of Earth science in their
classrooms
u To highlight Canadian contributions to the diamond mining industry
u To showcase the broad range of science- and technology-related careers offered by the mining industry
Structure
Activities are presented in a sequence of five topics, starting with the large-scale structure of the Earth, moving into
tectonic and surficial processes, and finishing with the applications of diamond mining (including exploration, mining,
processing, and reclamation), and the importance of diamond mining to Canadians. This also represents a general
sequence in time: from the formation of the Earth, through the creation of our present-day landscape, to modern
industry activities and their impact on people. A summary of activity content is provided at the beginning of each topic.
Activity Design
• Backgrounder:
The Backgrounder presents Earth science theory for the instructor, and may be used as a fact sheet for students.
• Outline:
The Outline is designed for the instructor to use, and follows an established format throughout the resource.
• Overview
Gives a short summary of what students will accomplish when the task is completed.
• Level of Complexity
Gives an indication for each activity as to how simple or complex it may be, through
the use of symbols.
COMPLEXITY
Medium
COMPLEXITY
High
COMPLEXITY
Low
The level of complexity for an activity depends on many variables specific to each classroom. Activities with a low level of complexity are self-contained, require simple equipment, and
entail single or straightforward tasks. These activities will take the least amount of time to
complete. Activities with a high level of complexity may contain multiple steps or require
time for student research or investigation.
• Materials
Includes a list of the equipment and information resources needed to complete the activity.
• Glossary Key Words
Contains a list of the key words encountered in each activity.
• Classroom Instructions
Describes how to deliver and structure the activity in the classroom. Where applicable,
discusses issues, management, extensions, and modifications.
• Safety Precautions
Describes the necessary precautions.
• Assessment Ideas and Sample Responses
Provides suitable sample responses to analysis questions posed in the activity.
• Handout
The Handout contains instructions pertinent to the activity. The structure may vary, depending on the nature
of the activity. Where applicable, the handout includes the following:
• Introduction
• Materials
• Safety
The Earth’s Interior
Topic 1.0
INTRODUCTION
Four activities designed to answer the question
Where are diamonds formed?
1.1 Differentiated Earth
In a laboratory experiment using household liquids, students measure the density of the
liquids and observe how they mix. They are given the densities of common Earth materials
and the properties of the layers of the Earth, as defined by chemical divisions. Students
combine their practical observations with the data to explain the gross composition of
layers in the Earth and to predict in which layer diamonds will form. Using the data, they
create a visual representation (e.g., cross-section diagram) of the inside of the Earth.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Based on their chemical and physical
properties, diamonds are thought to have
formed in the upper mantle.
1.2 Seismic Waves
Students take part in a teacher-led kinaesthetic activity modelling the properties of
primary (P) and secondary (S) seismic waves, and their propagation in solids and
liquids; the students create a “human seismic wave.” Using information from the activity
and supplementary resources, they complete a chart for the four types of seismic waves.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Knowing more about the internal structure
of the Earth can help to identify locations in
the Earth’s mantle that have suitable conditions
for diamonds to form. One of the best ways that Earth
scientists can learn about the inside of the Earth is to
understand the properties of seismic waves and study the
patterns of waves travelling through the Earth.
1.0 THE EARTH’S INTERIOR: INTRODUCTION
1.3 Seismometer Design
Students carry out independent research to establish how seismometer designs
accomplish each stage of seismometer functions. They design and plan to construct a
working model of a seismometer, and after approval of the plan, build the model. They
produce a written report about their model, and how it performs seismometer functions.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
To find where diamonds are formed on a
global scale, it is necessary to know which parts of the Earth’s
mantle have suitable pressure and temperature conditions. Earth
scientists employ a seismometer to record the seismic waves
that travel through the Earth and use this information to “map”
the properties of the different Earth layers.
1.4 Shadow Zones
On a cross-section diagram of the Earth students plot the global pattern of P and S
wave arrivals shown on seismograms produced by the December 26, 2004 Sumatera
earthquake. They interpret the location gaps in S wave arrivals, known as the “shadow
zones,” to infer the size and liquid nature of the Earth’s outer core.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Earth scientists use the patterns
of how seismic waves travel through
the Earth, and the paths the waves take,
to learn more about the different layers and structure inside
the planet. This knowledge helps to locate which parts of the
Earth’s mantle have suitable conditions for diamonds to form.
1.0 THE EARTH’S INTERIOR: INTRODUCTION
Tectonic Processes
Topic 2.0
INTRODUCTION
Three activities designed to answer the question
How do diamonds reach the surface?
2.1 Plate Boundaries and Stable Cratons
Students are provided with a map of the global distribution of
earthquakes and a database of tectonic plate horizontal velocities
measured at Global Positioning System (GPS) stations around the
world. Students select a GPS station on each tectonic plate and draw
the motion vectors on the earthquake map. On the same map, students
locate the principal diamond mines around the world, both presentday and historical. They interpret the three data sets to determine the
large scale structure of the Earth’s crust, and where in that structure
diamond-bearing kimberlites are found.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Diamond-bearing
kimberlites are principally
found in cratons – the stable, usually ancient
cores of the Earth’s continental crust.
2.2 The Formation of Diamond Indicator Minerals
Students test samples of frozen juice to observe the differential freezing
of the water and fruit portions. They interpret this observation as an
example of fractional crystallization of materials with different melting
points. They apply this concept to cooling magma, to explain how
different minerals form at different temperatures.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Fractional crystallization
from a complex magma results in groups of minerals
forming at the same temperature and pressure
conditions. There are indicator minerals that form in the
same conditions as diamonds, but are more common.
These indicator minerals are used to find kimberlites, and
then to determine if they are diamond-bearing.
2.0 TECTONIC PROCESSES: INTRODUCTION
49
2.3 Volcanic Eruptions and Kimberlites
In a simple laboratory experiment (best done outdoors), students create
a baking soda and vinegar eruption, with glitter added to represent
diamonds and garnets. They observe the different eruption styles
when the volcano is open and when it is constrained, and the effect of
dissolved gases on the lava appearance. Students match the observable
characteristics of a kimberlite rock sample with the conditions of how
kimberlite is formed.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Kimberlite eruptions are considered the primary method by which
diamonds are transported to the surface of the Earth. Kimberlite
emplacement is thought to be an explosive process. The rapid rise of magma
to the surface as dissolved gases expand is necessary for diamonds to remain
stable in the magma.
50
2.0 TECTONIC PROCESSES: INTRODUCTION
Surficial
Surficial Processes
Processes and
and the
the Rock
Rock Cycle
Cycle
Topic 3.0
Four activities designed to answer the question
INTRODUCTION
What happens when diamonds reach the surface?
3.1 The Rock Cycle
Students learn the terms that apply to the processes and products of
the rock cycle, and, using those terms, create a visual representation of
the rock cycle. Students then superimpose the diamond story onto the
rock-cycle diagram.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
The diamond-bearing rock kimberlite is
an igneous rock. The processes of erosion,
transportation, and deposition of kimberlites, lead
to the dispersal of indicator minerals and, rarely, to alluvial
diamond deposits.
3.2 Alluvial Processes
Students use a stream table to investigate the alluvial processes of
erosion, transportation, sorting, and deposition. They experiment with
how water flow, slope, and obstructions affect the processes. By adding
coloured beads into the sand to represent diamonds in kimberlite,
students simulate how alluvial diamond deposits are created.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
The first diamonds
discovered by humans were
in alluvial deposits. These sources continue
to be important today, in both existing and relic
water channels.
3.0 SURFICIAL PROCESSES AND THE ROCK CYCLE: INTRODUCTION
75
3.3 Glacial Processes
Students are provided with characteristic descriptions of general glacial
features and a set of field photographs, and are asked to identify the
glacial features in each photograph. This knowledge is then applied to
photographs from six field sites in Canada’s James Bay exploration area,
which students examine to determine the ice flow direction.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
In Canada, the kimberlite indicator minerals
have been dispersed by glacial processes.
To find the source (e.g., the kimberlite pipe),
the indicator minerals must be traced back
along the direction of ice movement.
3.4 Stratigraphic Detectives
Students are given the principles of geological relative dating. They then
use these principles to interpret the geological history of a simplified
stratigraphic column from Nunavut, which includes a kimberlite pipe
intrusion.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Understanding the age of kimberlites,
and the relationship of their age to
geological events and surrounding rocks,
is important to help locate new kimberlites.
76
3.0 SURFICIAL PROCESSES AND THE ROCK CYCLE: INTRODUCTION
The Science of Exploration
Topic 4.0
INTRODUCTION
Five activities designed to answer the question
How are diamonds found?
4.1 Geophysics as a Tool to Locate Kimberlites
Students are provided with the data from an airborne geophysical
survey of a kimberlite pipe area. They plot and interpret the data to
determine the probable location of the kimberlite pipe.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Geophysical exploration is an essential
tool for finding diamonds, especially in
Canada where diamond-bearing kimberlites
are often obscured by surface deposits
and lakes.
4.2 A Case Study — Using Indicator Minerals to Locate Kimberlites
Using hands-on materials, students carry out a simulation of counting
the kimberlite indicator minerals in field samples. They are provided with a
base map of the James Bay exploration area, and a data set of the indicator
mineral count at several field sites. Students map the distribution of garnets
by the number of garnets found at each site. They use the knowledge
gained from the alluvial processes and glacier processes activities to interpret
which of five suggested sites are most likely to be the kimberlite sources.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
This activity directly
reproduces the method of
locating kimberlites by the
geological mapping of indicator
minerals.
4.0 THE SCIENCE OF EXPLORATION: INTRODUCTION
119
4.3 A Case Study — Using Garnet Chemistry to Find Diamond-Bearing Kimberlites
Students are provided with a data set of the chemical analysis of garnets
collected in the James Bay exploration area. They plot the ratio of Cr2O3
(chromium oxide) to CaO (calcium oxide) to determine which garnets came
from kimberlites more likely to contain diamonds (e.g., G10 garnets). On the
base map provided, students map the location of the G10 garnets and use this
to refine their interpretation of where the diamond-bearing kimberlite is located.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
This activity exactly
replicates the geochemical
analysis of garnets and other indicator minerals
to locate diamond-bearing kimberlites.
4.4 Soil Survey
Students carry out a field survey and follow geochemical exploration
sampling procedures to collect soil samples. They complete a chemical
analysis using proprietary soil test kits. Depending on the nature of
the area surveyed, they produce a map of the chemical distribution, or
interpret their results in the context of surface features.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Geochemical analysis of soil and
other deposits can be used to locate kimberlites.
4.5 A Case Study — Using Soil Geochemistry to Locate Kimberlites
Students are provided with an authentic data set from a geochemical
soil survey over a kimberlite pipe. They apply statistical analysis steps,
and investigate various data handling techniques to process and
interpret the data to locate the kimberlite pipe.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
These methods of data handling and
collection are common procedures in Earth
science, particularly in geochemical exploration, and are a
current approach to the location of kimberlites and diamonds.
120
4.0 THE SCIENCE OF EXPLORATION: INTRODUCTION
Diamond Mining in Canada and the Mining Sequence
Five activities designed to answer the question
Activity 5.0
INTRODUCTION
How are diamonds mined and processed?
What happens when a mine closes? What do diamonds mean to Canadians?
5.1 Canada’s First Diamond Mines
Students are provided with fact sheets and information about the
development of Canada’s first diamond mines, EKATI and Diavik, both
located in the Northwest Territories. They research and report on one
stage of the mining sequence for diamond mining in northern Canada.
Students present the information in the role of a person who would
have been involved in the mine development process.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Both the EKATI and Diavik Diamond Mines
were virgin territory for mining, both physically
and politically. The consultation process was extensive,
and established the route subsequent projects are required
to take.
5.2 Processing Diamonds
Students use a panning method, used in gold and diamond prospecting,
to separate heavy minerals from sediment. They are provided with
a fact sheet explaining the processes used to extract diamonds from
kimberlite, processes which also rely on heavy mineral separation.
Students create a flow chart to illustrate the sequence.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
Mineral extraction from ore rock relies on
the target mineral(s) having contrasting
physical or chemical properties from the waste rock.
Diamonds have unique physical properties which are
utilized in the separation process.
5.0 DIAMOND MINING
IN CANADA
AND THE
MINING AND
SEQUENCE:
INTRODUCTION
5.0 DIAMOND
MINING
IN CANADA
THE MINING
SEQUENCE
175
5.3 Reclamation
Students carry out a simulation of the planning, production, and
closure stages in mining a kimberlite pipe, with an emphasis on
land reclamation. They use a model landscape to visualize the real
world impact and necessary procedures to protect the local natural
environment.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
During the closure stage, after mining is
complete, the land must be reclaimed. The goal
of reclamation is to return the land to productive land use
similar to pre-mining conditions. Where this is not possible,
the goal is to minimize the environmental impact and create
a natural environment in keeping with the surrounding area.
5.4 The Career Connection
Students connect stages in the mining sequence to the careers
associated with each stage and are encouraged to conduct an
“information interview” with a person employed by the Canadian
mining industry. Students select one career and prepare a fictional
resumé.
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS
The Canadian mining industry presents an
array of rewarding careers. This dynamic
industry is technologically advanced, and vital to our
economy. It recruits highly skilled individuals to work as part
of a team to successfully complete each stage of the mining
process. The experience and skills gained at one mine site
are not only transferable to other mines, but can be applied
to other careers and occupational sectors as well.
5.5 A Multi-Faceted Industry
Students create a media display of diamond mining’s economic and
social contributions to Canada. Several topics are covered: direct and
indirect revenue; short-term and long-term societal impact; security;
tourism; global issues; and local issues. Fact sheets are provided and
supplementary resources are suggested for student research.
176
5.0 DIAMOND MINING IN CANADA AND THE MINING SEQUENCE: INTRODUCTION
Discovering Diamonds: Curriculum Expectations
Topic 1: The Earth’s Interior
Where are diamonds formed?
1.1 Differentiated Earth
• demonstrate an understanding of the properties of the Earth and of the internal (geological) and external
(cosmic) processes operating on it, and draw comparisons with other objects in the solar system
• describe the origin and evolution of the Earth and other objects in the solar system, and identify the
fundamental forces and processes involved
• assess critically the scientific questions they have formulated and the information they have gathered in order
to identify the fundamental forces and processes that shape the interior, surface, and atmosphere of the Earth
and other objects in the solar system
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• investigate the basic structure of the planet and the geological processes associated with it, and use the
knowledge gained to explain the major interactions among the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and
atmosphere
• demonstrate an understanding of the range of physical scales that apply in the Earth sciences
• produce a diagram or model, to scale, of the interior of the Earth in order to differentiate among the layers
of the Earth and their characteristics (e.g., use cross-sections to provide the dimensions of crust, mantle, and
inner and outer core, and travel-time curves for various seismic waves to provide data on the characteristics of
the individual layers)
1.2 Seismic Waves
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
• describe the characteristics of the three main types of seismic waves, P-, S-, and L-waves, and explain the
different modes of travel, travel times, and types of motion associated with each
• investigate and produce a model of each type of seismic wave, using springs and ropes, and describe for each
the nature of its propagation and the resulting movement within the rocks through which it is traveling
1.3 Seismometer Design
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS: CURRICULUM EXPECTATIONS
239
• design and construct a working model of a seismograph, and explain its use in recording earthquake activity
• describe and explain how the development of the seismograph has contributed to a better understanding of
the internal structure of the Earth
1.4 Shadow Zones
• assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the
development of sonar to map the ocean floor)
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
Topic 2: Tectonic Processes
How do diamonds reach the surface?
2.1 Plate Boundaries and Stable Cratons
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• investigate the basic structure of the planet and the geological processes associated with it, and use the
knowledge gained to explain the major interactions among the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and
atmosphere
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
• describe, on the basis of information gathered from print and electronic sources, the various types of possible
margins between lithospheric plates (e.g., convergent, divergent, transform, and intraplate activity) and the
types of internal Earth processes occurring at each
• demonstrate an understanding of the kinds of evidence that Earth scientists use to document lithospheric
plate motion (e.g., the corresponding shapes of the coastlines of Africa and South America; fossil evidence)
• identify major areas of tectonic activity in the world (e.g., Japan – convergent margin; Iceland – divergent
margin; California – transform fault), drawing on information about the relationship between earthquakes,
volcanoes, and plate boundaries (e.g., plot on a world map, for a given time period, the locations of recorded
earthquakes and active volcanoes)
240
DISCOVERING DIAMONDS: CURRICULUM EXPECTATIONS
2.2 The Formation of Diamond Indicator Minerals
• distinguish between minerals and rocks, and describe the formation and characteristics of both
• describe the formation of igneous rocks (plutonic and volcanic), and identify their distinguishing
characteristics (e.g., composition and flow behaviour; characteristics of volcanic rocks that indicate the type of
volcano in which they were formed)
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
2.3 Volcanic Eruptions and Kimberlites
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as the
impact of human activities on natural systems
• describe the formation of igneous rocks (plutonic and volcanic), and identify their distinguishing
characteristics (e.g., composition and flow behaviour; characteristics of volcanic rocks that indicate the type of
volcano in which they were formed)
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
Topic 3: Surficial Processes and the Rock Cycle
What happens when diamonds reach the surface?
3.1 The Rock Cycle
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as the
impact of human activities on natural systems
• demonstrate an understanding of the continuous recycling of major rock types throughout Earth history, of
the evidence that this process provides with respect to the length and complexity of Earth history, and of the
very late appearance of human beings in the geological record
• explain (e.g., by interpreting a rock cycle diagram) how rocks and their constituent minerals are continuously
being recycled
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
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3.2 Alluvial Processes
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as
the impact of human activities on natural systems
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
• demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationships between internal and surficial Earth processes (e.g.,
earthquake activity, volcanic eruptions, floods, erosion) and the ways in which they affect human activity
• identify types of sediment transport (e.g., wind, water, glacial), and compare the particle size and shape,
degree of sorting, and sedimentary structures resulting from each
• demonstrate an understanding of how erosion and deposition by streams are affected by load, gradient,
channel shape, sediment composition, and human activities
• relate the characteristics of sediment (e.g., grain size, shape, composition) to the velocity and direction of
currents in a beach or stream environment (e.g., examine where sediment is being eroded and deposited in a
local beach or river/stream environment)
3.3 Glacial Processes
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as
the impact of human activities on natural systems
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
3.4 Stratigraphic Detectives
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as
the impact of human activities on natural systems
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• identify the processes at work within the Earth (e.g., plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism) and on its
surface (e.g., running water, weathering and erosion, mass wasting, glaciation), and describe the role of both
types of processes in shaping the Earth’s surface
• demonstrate an understanding of the differences between relative and absolute dating techniques as they
apply to natural systems
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Topic 4: The Science of Exploration
How are diamonds found?
4.1 Geophysics as a Tool to Locate Kimberlites
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• demonstrate an understanding of the range of physical scales that apply in the Earth sciences
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the
development of sonar to map the ocean floor)
• select, integrate, and analyse information from print and electronic sources, including Internet sites, and,
either in writing or using a computer, compile and display the information in various forms, including flow
charts, tables, and graphs (e.g., use the Internet to compile information on areas of major earthquake activity,
and compare the frequency and intensity of the activity in graphical form)
4.2 A Case Study – Using Indicator Minerals to Locate Kimberlites
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• describe and explain the effects of natural systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, and the
increasing alteration of certain natural systems that has resulted from human activities
• assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the
development of sonar to map the ocean floor)
• select, integrate, and analyse information from print and electronic sources, including Internet sites, and,
either in writing or using a computer, compile and display the information in various forms, including flow
charts, tables, and graphs (e.g., use the Internet to compile information on areas of major earthquake activity,
and compare the frequency and intensity of the activity in graphical form)
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4.3 A Case Study – Using Garnet Chemistry to Find Diamond-Bearing Kimberlites
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• demonstrate an understanding of the range of physical scales that apply in the Earth sciences
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the
development of sonar to map the ocean floor)
• select, integrate, and analyse information from print and electronic sources, including Internet sites, and,
either in writing or using a computer, compile and display the information in various forms, including flow
charts, tables, and graphs (e.g., use the Internet to compile information on areas of major earthquake activity,
and compare the frequency and intensity of the activity in graphical form)
4.4 Soil Survey
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the
development of sonar to map the ocean floor)
• demonstrate an understanding of Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) legislation
by selecting and applying appropriate techniques for handling, storing, and disposing of laboratory materials
(e.g., following safety procedures when sampling rocks; using materials safely when identifying minerals and
rocks), and by using appropriate personal protection (e.g., wearing safety glasses when sampling, and hard
hats when visiting outcrops and quarries)
• select appropriate instruments and use them safely, effectively, and accurately in collecting observations and
data (e.g., hand lens, polarizing microscope)
4.5 A Case Study – Using Soil Geochemistry to Locate Kimberlites
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• assess how developments in technology have contributed to our understanding of the Earth (e.g., the
development of sonar to map the ocean floor)
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• select, integrate, and analyse information from print and electronic sources, including Internet sites, and,
either in writing or using a computer, compile and display the information in various forms, including flow
charts, tables, and graphs (e.g., use the Internet to compile information on areas of major earthquake activity,
and compare the frequency and intensity of the activity in graphical form)
Topic 5: Diamond Mining in Canada and the Mining Sequence
How are diamonds mined and processed? What happens when a mine
closes? What do diamonds mean to Canadians?
5.1 Canada’s First Diamond Mines
• demonstrate an understanding of society’s dependence on Earth materials, of the effects of developments in
technology on the exploration and mining of Earth materials, and of the ways in which the use and extraction
of Earth materials have affected natural and human-made environments
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as the
impact of human activities on natural systems
• describe and explain the effects of natural systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, and the
increasing alteration of certain natural systems that has resulted from human activities
• identify and describe engineering and technological innovations and adaptations (e.g., in building design,
highway construction, emergency services) resulting from the impact of earthquake activity on human
populations
5.2 Processing Diamonds
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental
• demonstrate an understanding of the range of physical scales that apply in the Earth sciences ramifications
of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site rehabilitation resulting from the use of
improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• demonstrate an understanding of the major tools and techniques (e.g., seismograph, magnetic signature of
the ocean floor) that various Earth scientists (e.g., seismologists, geophysicists) use to conduct research on the
basic structure and processes of the planet
• investigate, through the use of models and analysis of information gathered from various sources, the nature
of internal and surficial Earth processes, and the ways in which these processes can be measured
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5.3 Reclamation
• demonstrate an understanding of society’s dependence on Earth materials, of the effects of developments in
technology on the exploration and mining of Earth materials, and of the ways in which the use and extraction
of Earth materials have affected natural and human-made environments
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• identify and describe the elements and dynamic interactions of the Earth’s natural systems
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as
the impact of human activities on natural systems
• describe the major interactions among the four spheres of the Earth – the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere
• describe and explain the effects of natural systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, and the
increasing alteration of certain natural systems that has resulted from human activities
5.4 The Career Connection
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• identify and describe careers related to Earth and space science (e.g., careers related to hydrology,
meteorology, geology, mineralogy, astronomy, and remote sensing)
5.5 A Multi-Faceted Industry
• demonstrate an understanding of society’s dependence on Earth materials, of the effects of developments in
technology on the exploration and mining of Earth materials, and of the ways in which the use and extraction
of Earth materials have affected natural and human-made environments
• explain the importance of minerals and other Earth resources (e.g., sand, gravel, dimension stone, oil and gas),
and of exploration for these resources, for the local, provincial, and national economies
• describe and explain the effects of natural systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, and the
increasing alteration of certain natural systems that has resulted from human activities
• describe some of the technologies used to recover natural resources from the Earth, and evaluate economic,
social, and environmental ramifications of their use (e.g., the need for fewer workers and the practice of site
rehabilitation resulting from the use of improved technologies in the mining of nickel)
• assess the impact of natural forces and systems on the Earth’s physical and human environments, as well as
the impact of human activities on natural systems
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