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ofRome Lessons provideslessonsthat hint at flawsin modern The riseand fall of the RomanRepublic politicalpolicies. hy SteveBonta This i; the lOth ffinal) installment in a series of articles on the rise and fall of the RomanRepublic. i; rom amodem vantagepoint.Roman T-t f ittory instructspoignantlyon both fi the geniuso[ prudentgovernment I and the folly of empire.Imperial Rome was finally extinguishedin the fifth century A.D., and thoughstrandsof her cul- in the VenetianRepublic. turepersisted in the ByzantineEmpire.and in Western Christendom, which preferred the Latin language over the vernacular for the next thousandyears- the bookswere closed on the civiiizationof Cicero,Brutus' and Becausewell-constituteventhe Caesars. ed statesusuallydeclinegraduallyrather than suddenly.the lessonsof Rome were centuriesinithe teaching- centuriesthat, to most Romans,made the loss of Roman liberty only vaguely noticeable. The primary reasonfor Rome's fall was moral decline. Every Roman writer who chronicled the fall of the republic - Appian,Tacitus,CassiusDio, Sallust,Cicero, and others - marveled at the evaporation of ancient virtue that precededthe loss of liberty. While republican Rome lacked many of the softer virtues of later Christian civilization, there can be no question that, in comparison with most contempora.rypagan societies,Rome was a paragon of rectitude.resistingfor centuriesmany of the debilitating vices and superstitions of the rest of the pagan world. Where the Greeks institutionalizedhomosexualbehavior, sexualperversion was taboo in the Roman Republic. Where the Carthaginians practiced human sacrifice, including child sacrifice on a large scale,Rome generally refrained from such excesses. Where Persia,and Babylonia before her, submitted to an all-powerful priesthood who were superior in power to political rulers, Roman priests remained subordinate to magistratesof the republic. Revolution Gultutal The end of the republic saw a revolution not only in political but in moral and even religious manners. By the first century B.C., sexualmores had been abandoned, and the former sanctity of marriage forgotten. Crime, once almost unknown in Rome, became rampant. In such an environment, Rome became an easy target for political conspiracieslike that of Catiline, which exploited the criminal elements in Rome to carry out bribery, blackmail, and assassination. More ominously still, the bucolic simplicity of authentic Roman religion was gradually contaminatedby a monstrous cult from the east,the Persran mystery religion of Mithra that, by the late secondcentury A.D., had permeated everylevelof Romansociety. This cult was in fact a vast secret society consecrated to emperor-worship and to the amoral doctrine of radical dualism - the idea that good and evil are etemal, absolutely equivalentprinciples that must both be aPPeased. It was apparently introduced into Rome in the first century B.C. by the Cilician pirates and spreadthrough the ranks of political officialdom and the military, claiming as adherents emperors like Commodus, Aurelian, Diocletian, and Julian. Fortunately for Western civilization, Christianity 'io eventually eclipsed Mithrawhichwas0nce Forum, attheruinsoftheRoman havgmarveled of people nd-sien:'Mjiiioni breathing new life into ism, in allof leaders, andsomeof themostextraordinary dramas, &1eIsqmeof !he..O,q_e.?!est:00lftical decrepit imperial Rome. THENEWAMERICAN . FEBRUARY21,2OO5 Rome's successorcivilization in the East, Byzantium, was sustainedfor more than a thousandyears by the Christian piety of her citizens and more capablerulers, despite ceaselessassaultsby barbarian nations and an irremediablv weak svstem of law and government. Wagesof Wal cians had always been resolved by negotiation and political reform. But beginning with the administrations of the Gracchi in the late secondcentury B.C., Rome exploded into episodesof partisanviolence. The following centurysaw a seriesof devastating civil wars that tore the re- Theprimary reason forRome's fallwas moral decline. Every Roman writer whochronicled thefalloftherepublic marveled attheeuaporation 0fancient virtue thatpreceded thelossofliberty. Much of Rome's strength in her early years flowed from her martial virtues. Her crtizensoldiers were fearlessand superbly organized.The Roman genius for order soonled to innovationsin military science 3,-++ that made the Roman legions a virtually invincible fighting force for centuries.But Rome's military successesengendereda love ofconflict and conquestthat hastened her undoing. For republicanRome was unwilling to interrupt her ceaselesswarfare at the water'sedge,andplungedinto overseasempire building at the first challenge from abroad. The Punic wars were followed by several generationsof mostly cravenconquest against much weaker foes in Iberia, Africa, andAsia Minor. Caesar'svictoriesover the Gauls were mostly achievedby playing disunited tribes againstone another, and further encouragedRome to trust in her own invincibility. Yet when Rome was confronted with truly formidable foes, the resultswere sometimescalamitous.Such was the casewith the Parlhiansat Carhae and the Germans at Teutoberg,both of which resulted in the slaughter of entire legions. In the imperial period, the sturdy Gothic nation, unimpressedby Rome's inflated opinion of herself, becameRome's most successful adversary.To the north, the Germans never succumbed to Roman arms, and to the east, the Persian empire of the Sassanidspresentedan impossible challenge. But Rome, once addicted to international warfare, never found the strength of will to lay down the sword. Her endlesswars of conquestdepletedher coffers (despitethe plunders of war), decimated her population, made enemiesfar and wide - and createdirresistible pres, sure for surrenderingdomestic liberties. For Rome, her greatestcivic strength had always been her unity. Until the late secondcenturyB.C., Romehad neverseen bloodshedfrom civil unrest.The various Factional strife:WhenRome's military forces wereturned against her.ow disputes between the plebeians and patri- century purges popu B.C. onwards, theresulting oftendQeimated theclty's -fc . FEBRUARY THENEWAMERICAN 21,2005 & t t; l, :. ti and Caesar.For another,the its bestyears,was afar cry from the stanRoman constitution failed dardsof liberty and peaceto which modern tothe a tragedy Thefall of Rome,although to give equal protection to Americans are accustomed.Rome was at generations it,hasproven all Roman citizens,institu- war nearly all the time, and all able-bodied thatexperienced the patrician ar- men served throughout their prime adult inthelonger tionalizing formankind tobea blessing istocracy and ensuring that y e a r sd u r i n g e a c h c a m p a i g n i n gs e a s o n . ledtoa collapse Rome would always have a Roman citizenswere bound by rigid class term.ForwhileRome's distinctions, and slavery was pervasive. ruling class. possihle theriseof darkage,it alsomade While the Roman system Citizenship was generally not grantedto thathasfareclipsed of government recognized subjectpeoples,evenin Italy, until the first civilization a modern the need for checks and bal- centuryB.C. greatest achievements Rome's Above all else,it must be borne in mind ancesand for separatingthe Powers of the state among that Rome was a pre-Christiancivilization. publicapartandeasedthewayfortherise various offices and magistracies,the Absent from Roman culture was the value of military dictatorslike Caesar.Antony. Romanstatedid not enjoy the neal mod- on human life and individual dignity that and Octavian, who put an end to Roman ern divisions of executive,legislative, and has characterizedenlightened states in liberties.From that time forward. Rome judicialpower.Instead.fragmentsof these WesternChristian civilization. The Twelve was neverfree from facdonal violence.Po- powers were parceled out into various of- Tables of Roman law required the killing .. litical.assassinationsand riots, unknown in fices. The judicial power, for example,was of deformed infants, for example. Morerheearlycenturiesof therepublic.became sharedamong certain of the assemblies over, while the Roman military, at least The executivepowerwas during the republican period, acted with Emperorswere enthroned andthepraetors. commonplace. divided among the consuls,praetors,sen- more restraint than was characteristic of and deposedalmost exclusively by miliand others.The legislative the ancient world, their wars, battles, and by dreadful ate.quaestors. rarycoups.oftenaccompanied to the vari- sieges were nonethelessusually fought power.meanwhile.apperrained purgesand epic battles. without negotiation and without quarter and to the Senate. ous assemblies Like the ancient Greek city states. for the vanquished. GonstitutionalFlaws The Romanconstitution,superiorthough Rome providedfor deliberalionand even of Rome it was to other contemporarypolitical sys- the enactment of laws by the masses in Legacy Rome, although a tragedyto the The fall of flaw popular This serious flaws assemblies. number of serious a contained tems, that came to the fore as the republic dis- the absenceof representativegovernment generationsthat experiencedit, hasproven integrated.For one thing, it providedfor - guaranteedall of the instability and to be a blessing for mankind in the longer the appointmentof diCtatorsfor six-month tumult associatedwith direct democracy, term. For while Rome's collapseled to a periodsduringtimesof acutecrisis.an in- finally leadingto the rise of unscrupulous dark age of severalcenturies,it also made possible, in the longer run, the rise of a stitutionthat furnisheda pretextfor mili- demagogues. in modern civilization that has far eclipsed Overall.the Roman Republic.even tary coupsby the likes of Marius. Sulla. hashada profound Roman architecture Pantheon attests, theRoman Court alongside thedesign o'ftheU,SSupreme ideals. republican law, art, and language, Rome lives in her literature, Lrchitectural styles. on THENEW AMERICAN . FEBRUARY21, 2005 Rome'sgreatestachievements. Had Rome maintainedindefinitely her grip on England,Anglo-Saxoncivilizationwith its distinctive common law systemcould never have arisen. Germany would never have becomecivilized without the demiseof the Roman legionsthat fought unceasinglyto subdueher.The Italian city-staterepublics would neverhaveinauguratedthe Renaissanceunder the heel of the Roman military. Modern Western civilization, especially Americancivilization,with all of its blessingsof freedom and progress,could never have beenborn under the bannersof the Roman legions. But Rome lives on in the fragments of Roman civilization that have inspired and guided her modern inheritors.It was a reawakeningof interestin classicallanguage and culture, particularly art and architecture,that motivated the pioneers of the Renaissance. Roman laws were the sourceof the civil law codeof continentai Europe, and had significant influence on English law as well. The Latin language has enriched modern English immeasurably, providing us with a vast scientific. academic,and legal lexicon. Perhaps most importantly, America's Founding Fathers looked to Rome as their primary inspiration in learning the lessonsof civilizationspast,lessonsextracted from striking historical parallels that modernAmericans would do well to heed.LikeAmerica, Rome beganas a tiny colony of immigrants surroundedby hostile neighbors.Like America, Rome was governedfirst by kings, and founded a republic when its monarchyturnedinto despotism. Like America, early Rome placed great importanceon separatingand limiting the powersof government.Like modern America, republicanRome embarked on a destructiveprogram of foreign military adventurismthat addedto her international prestigebut sappedher strength and resources.Like America, Rome succr"rmbed to the temptationsof the welfare state,teachingher citizens to divide into factionsto fight over the spoilsof the public treasuryand to dependon government for their materialwell-being.Like America, Rome sawthe rise of subversivemovements that attackedher free constitution. And like the America in which we now live, Rome underwent a dizzying cultural and moral decline.which. in the caseof Rome, eventually destroyedRome's capacity for self-government. In spite of the many parallels, there are also differences that suggestthat America need not suffer the same fate as Rome. For one thing, in spite of the venality of modernAmericansociety.we arenowhere near the pitch of moral decline depicted in the pages of Suetonius,Tacitus, and J u v e n a lF . o r a n o t h e ro. u r C o n s t i t u t i o ni s vastly superior to Rome's, and ought to p r o v e f a r m o r e d u r a b l e .M o s t c r u c i a l l y . s anylayers m o d e r nA m e r i c ap o s s e s s em of strength- cultural, moral, religious, institutional, and even technological that ancientRome did not have.that may a l l o w A m e r i c a t o e n d u r ew h e r e R o m e r':rr '., faltered. Wirh all her tarnishedgreatness. Rome is a witness, not only of the pitfalls of power, prestige, and prosperity, but ofthe transcendingtruth that. even under the most adversecircumstances,freedom and enduring civilization are possible. I r'