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ofRome
Lessons
provideslessonsthat hint at flawsin modern
The riseand fall of the RomanRepublic
politicalpolicies.
hy SteveBonta
This i; the lOth ffinal) installment in a series of articles on the rise and fall of the
RomanRepublic.
i;
rom amodem vantagepoint.Roman
T-t
f ittory instructspoignantlyon both
fi
the geniuso[ prudentgovernment
I
and the folly of empire.Imperial Rome
was finally extinguishedin the fifth century A.D., and thoughstrandsof her cul- in the VenetianRepublic.
turepersisted
in the ByzantineEmpire.and in Western
Christendom, which preferred the Latin
language over the vernacular for the next
thousandyears- the bookswere closed
on the civiiizationof Cicero,Brutus' and
Becausewell-constituteventhe Caesars.
ed statesusuallydeclinegraduallyrather
than suddenly.the lessonsof Rome were
centuriesinithe teaching- centuriesthat,
to most Romans,made the loss of Roman
liberty only vaguely noticeable.
The primary reasonfor Rome's fall was
moral decline. Every Roman writer who
chronicled the fall of the republic - Appian,Tacitus,CassiusDio, Sallust,Cicero,
and others - marveled at the evaporation
of ancient virtue that precededthe loss of
liberty. While republican Rome lacked
many of the softer virtues of later Christian civilization, there can be no question
that, in comparison with most contempora.rypagan societies,Rome was a paragon
of rectitude.resistingfor centuriesmany
of the debilitating vices and superstitions
of the rest of the pagan world. Where the
Greeks institutionalizedhomosexualbehavior, sexualperversion was taboo in the
Roman Republic. Where the Carthaginians practiced human sacrifice, including child sacrifice on a large scale,Rome
generally refrained from such excesses.
Where Persia,and Babylonia before her,
submitted to an all-powerful priesthood
who were superior in power to political
rulers, Roman priests remained subordinate to magistratesof the republic.
Revolution
Gultutal
The end of the republic saw a revolution
not only in political but in moral and even
religious manners. By the first century
B.C., sexualmores had been abandoned,
and the former sanctity of marriage forgotten. Crime, once almost unknown in
Rome, became rampant. In such an environment, Rome became an easy target for
political conspiracieslike that of Catiline,
which exploited the criminal elements in
Rome to carry out bribery, blackmail, and
assassination.
More ominously still, the bucolic simplicity of authentic Roman religion was
gradually contaminatedby a monstrous
cult from the east,the Persran
mystery religion of Mithra
that, by the late secondcentury A.D., had permeated
everylevelof Romansociety.
This cult was in fact a vast
secret society consecrated
to emperor-worship and to
the amoral doctrine of radical dualism - the idea that
good and evil are etemal, absolutely equivalentprinciples
that must both be aPPeased.
It was apparently introduced
into Rome in the first century
B.C. by the Cilician pirates
and spreadthrough the ranks
of political officialdom and
the military, claiming as adherents emperors like Commodus, Aurelian, Diocletian,
and Julian.
Fortunately for Western
civilization, Christianity
'io
eventually eclipsed Mithrawhichwas0nce
Forum,
attheruinsoftheRoman
havgmarveled
of people
nd-sien:'Mjiiioni
breathing new life into
ism,
in allof
leaders,
andsomeof themostextraordinary
dramas,
&1eIsqmeof !he..O,q_e.?!est:00lftical
decrepit imperial Rome.
THENEWAMERICAN . FEBRUARY21,2OO5
Rome's successorcivilization in the East,
Byzantium, was sustainedfor more than
a thousandyears by the Christian piety of
her citizens and more capablerulers, despite ceaselessassaultsby barbarian nations and an irremediablv weak svstem of
law and government.
Wagesof Wal
cians had always been resolved
by negotiation and political reform. But beginning with the
administrations of the Gracchi
in the late secondcentury B.C.,
Rome exploded into episodesof
partisanviolence. The following
centurysaw a seriesof devastating civil wars that tore the re-
Theprimary
reason
forRome's
fallwas
moral
decline.
Every
Roman
writer
whochronicled
thefalloftherepublic
marveled
attheeuaporation
0fancient
virtue
thatpreceded
thelossofliberty.
Much of Rome's strength in her early
years flowed from her martial virtues. Her
crtizensoldiers were fearlessand superbly
organized.The Roman genius for order
soonled to innovationsin military science
3,-++
that made the Roman legions a virtually
invincible fighting force for centuries.But
Rome's military successesengendereda
love ofconflict and conquestthat hastened
her undoing. For republicanRome was unwilling to interrupt her ceaselesswarfare
at the water'sedge,andplungedinto overseasempire building at the first challenge
from abroad.
The Punic wars were followed by several generationsof mostly cravenconquest
against much weaker foes in Iberia, Africa, andAsia Minor. Caesar'svictoriesover
the Gauls were mostly achievedby playing disunited tribes againstone another,
and further encouragedRome to trust in
her own invincibility. Yet when Rome was
confronted with truly formidable foes, the
resultswere sometimescalamitous.Such
was the casewith the Parlhiansat Carhae
and the Germans at Teutoberg,both of
which resulted in the slaughter of entire
legions.
In the imperial period, the sturdy Gothic
nation, unimpressedby Rome's inflated
opinion of herself, becameRome's most
successful adversary.To the north, the
Germans never succumbed to Roman
arms, and to the east, the Persian empire
of the Sassanidspresentedan impossible
challenge. But Rome, once addicted to
international warfare, never found the
strength of will to lay down the sword.
Her endlesswars of conquestdepletedher
coffers (despitethe plunders of war), decimated her population, made enemiesfar
and wide - and createdirresistible pres,
sure for surrenderingdomestic liberties.
For Rome, her greatestcivic strength
had always been her unity. Until the late
secondcenturyB.C., Romehad neverseen
bloodshedfrom civil unrest.The various Factional
strife:WhenRome's
military
forces
wereturned
against
her.ow
disputes between the plebeians and patri- century
purges
popu
B.C.
onwards,
theresulting
oftendQeimated
theclty's
-fc
. FEBRUARY
THENEWAMERICAN
21,2005
&
t
t;
l,
:.
ti
and Caesar.For another,the its bestyears,was afar cry from the stanRoman constitution failed dardsof liberty and peaceto which modern
tothe
a tragedy
Thefall of Rome,although
to give equal protection to Americans are accustomed.Rome was at
generations
it,hasproven all Roman citizens,institu- war nearly all the time, and all able-bodied
thatexperienced
the patrician ar- men served throughout their prime adult
inthelonger tionalizing
formankind
tobea blessing
istocracy and ensuring that y e a r sd u r i n g e a c h c a m p a i g n i n gs e a s o n .
ledtoa
collapse
Rome would always have a Roman citizenswere bound by rigid class
term.ForwhileRome's
distinctions, and slavery was pervasive.
ruling class.
possihle
theriseof
darkage,it alsomade
While the Roman system Citizenship was generally not grantedto
thathasfareclipsed of government recognized subjectpeoples,evenin Italy, until the first
civilization
a modern
the need for checks and bal- centuryB.C.
greatest
achievements
Rome's
Above all else,it must be borne in mind
ancesand for separatingthe
Powers of the state among that Rome was a pre-Christiancivilization.
publicapartandeasedthewayfortherise various offices and magistracies,the Absent from Roman culture was the value
of military dictatorslike Caesar.Antony. Romanstatedid not enjoy the neal mod- on human life and individual dignity that
and Octavian, who put an end to Roman ern divisions of executive,legislative, and has characterizedenlightened states in
liberties.From that time forward. Rome judicialpower.Instead.fragmentsof these WesternChristian civilization. The Twelve
was neverfree from facdonal violence.Po- powers were parceled out into various of- Tables of Roman law required the killing
.. litical.assassinationsand riots, unknown in fices. The judicial power, for example,was of deformed infants, for example. Morerheearlycenturiesof therepublic.became sharedamong certain of the assemblies over, while the Roman military, at least
The executivepowerwas during the republican period, acted with
Emperorswere enthroned andthepraetors.
commonplace.
divided among the consuls,praetors,sen- more restraint than was characteristic of
and deposedalmost exclusively by miliand others.The legislative the ancient world, their wars, battles, and
by dreadful ate.quaestors.
rarycoups.oftenaccompanied
to the vari- sieges were nonethelessusually fought
power.meanwhile.apperrained
purgesand epic battles.
without negotiation and without quarter
and to the Senate.
ous assemblies
Like the ancient Greek city states. for the vanquished.
GonstitutionalFlaws
The Romanconstitution,superiorthough Rome providedfor deliberalionand even
of Rome
it was to other contemporarypolitical sys- the enactment of laws by the masses in Legacy
Rome, although a tragedyto the
The
fall
of
flaw
popular
This
serious
flaws
assemblies.
number
of
serious
a
contained
tems,
that came to the fore as the republic dis- the absenceof representativegovernment generationsthat experiencedit, hasproven
integrated.For one thing, it providedfor - guaranteedall of the instability and to be a blessing for mankind in the longer
the appointmentof diCtatorsfor six-month tumult associatedwith direct democracy, term. For while Rome's collapseled to a
periodsduringtimesof acutecrisis.an in- finally leadingto the rise of unscrupulous dark age of severalcenturies,it also made
possible, in the longer run, the rise of a
stitutionthat furnisheda pretextfor mili- demagogues.
in
modern civilization that has far eclipsed
Overall.the Roman Republic.even
tary coupsby the likes of Marius. Sulla.
hashada profound
Roman
architecture
Pantheon
attests,
theRoman
Court
alongside
thedesign
o'ftheU,SSupreme
ideals.
republican
law,
art,
and
language,
Rome
lives
in
her
literature,
Lrchitectural
styles.
on
THENEW AMERICAN . FEBRUARY21, 2005
Rome'sgreatestachievements.
Had Rome
maintainedindefinitely her grip on England,Anglo-Saxoncivilizationwith its distinctive common law systemcould never
have arisen. Germany would never have
becomecivilized without the demiseof the
Roman legionsthat fought unceasinglyto
subdueher.The Italian city-staterepublics
would neverhaveinauguratedthe Renaissanceunder the heel of the Roman military. Modern Western civilization, especially Americancivilization,with all of its
blessingsof freedom and progress,could
never have beenborn under the bannersof
the Roman legions.
But Rome lives on in the fragments
of Roman civilization that have inspired
and guided her modern inheritors.It was
a reawakeningof interestin classicallanguage and culture, particularly art and
architecture,that motivated the pioneers
of the Renaissance.
Roman laws were the
sourceof the civil law codeof continentai
Europe, and had significant influence on
English law as well. The Latin language
has enriched modern English immeasurably, providing us with a vast scientific.
academic,and legal lexicon.
Perhaps most importantly, America's
Founding Fathers looked to Rome as
their primary inspiration in learning the
lessonsof civilizationspast,lessonsextracted from striking historical parallels
that modernAmericans would do well to
heed.LikeAmerica, Rome beganas a tiny
colony of immigrants surroundedby hostile neighbors.Like America, Rome was
governedfirst by kings, and founded a republic when its monarchyturnedinto despotism. Like America, early Rome placed
great importanceon separatingand limiting the powersof government.Like modern America, republicanRome embarked
on a destructiveprogram of foreign military adventurismthat addedto her international prestigebut sappedher strength
and resources.Like America, Rome succr"rmbed
to the temptationsof the welfare
state,teachingher citizens to divide into
factionsto fight over the spoilsof the public treasuryand to dependon government
for their materialwell-being.Like America, Rome sawthe rise of subversivemovements that attackedher free constitution.
And like the America in which we now
live, Rome underwent a dizzying cultural
and moral decline.which. in the caseof
Rome, eventually destroyedRome's capacity for self-government.
In spite of the many parallels, there are
also differences that suggestthat America
need not suffer the same fate as Rome.
For one thing, in spite of the venality of
modernAmericansociety.we arenowhere
near the pitch of moral decline depicted
in the pages of Suetonius,Tacitus, and
J u v e n a lF
. o r a n o t h e ro. u r C o n s t i t u t i o ni s
vastly superior to Rome's, and ought to
p r o v e f a r m o r e d u r a b l e .M o s t c r u c i a l l y .
s anylayers
m o d e r nA m e r i c ap o s s e s s em
of strength- cultural, moral, religious,
institutional, and even technological that ancientRome did not have.that may
a l l o w A m e r i c a t o e n d u r ew h e r e R o m e
r':rr '.,
faltered.
Wirh all her tarnishedgreatness.
Rome
is a witness, not only of the pitfalls of
power, prestige, and prosperity, but ofthe
transcendingtruth that. even under the
most adversecircumstances,freedom and
enduring civilization are possible. I r'