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Prenatal Development Chapter 5 pp 172 - 179 Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Developmental Psychology • What shapes the way we change over time? • Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span • Every area of psychology can be looked at from this perspective – – – – biological development social development cognitive/perceptual development personality development Fundamental Issues: Nature vs. Nurture • What is role of heredity vs. environment in determining psychological makeup? • These are some of our greatest societal debates • Both are important – some characteristics are influenced more by genetics and others more by environment Overview of Genetics • Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes • Chromosomes are long twisted strands of DNA • DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and carries instructions • Genes are the basic unit of heredity; single unit of DNA on the chromosome Dominant and Recessive Genes • Genotype—underlying genetic makeup (dominant genes will be expressed, recessive genes may not) • Phenotype—traits that are expressed • Dominant genes—will always be expressed if present (e.g. Brown eyes) • Recessive genes—will not be expressed unless they are in a pair (e.g. Blue eyes) Characteristic Hair Dominant Dark Curly Recessive Light Straight Eyes Brown Hands 5 fingers Normal limbs Broad lips Dimples Grey Blue Extra fingers? Limb dwarfing Thin lips No dimples Face Weeks Since Conception 9 12 16 Prenatal Development 20 Childhood 24 28 Adolescence 32 Adulthood 36 38 Full Term Progress Before Birth: Prenatal Development • 3 phases – germinal stage = first 2 weeks • conception, implantation, formation of placenta – *embryonic stage* = 2 weeks – 2 months • formation of vital organs and systems – fetal stage = 9 weeks – birth • bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply • age of viability Stages 1 4 6 5 Prenatal Development 3 2 Childhood Adolescence 7 Adulthood • Embryonic stage – 2 – 9 weeks when almost all of the vital organs & bodily systems start to form. • This is the stage of greatest vulnerability to teratogens - any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses) Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development • Maternal nutrition – Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications, neurological problems, and psychopathology • Maternal drug use – Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs – Fetal alcohol syndrome – collection of congenital problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy The #1 preventable cause of birth defects in the U.S. • Maternal stress level Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development • Maternal illness – Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, HIV (AIDS), severe influenza – Prenatal health care – Prevention through guidance Maternal Nutrition – need adequate nutrition and take prenatal vitamins Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Maternal Drug Use Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Psychoactive Drugs *Psychoactive drugs* are any substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. Principal Abused Drugs and Their Effects • • • • Narcotics (opiates) – pain relieving Sedatives – sleep inducing Stimulants – increase CNS activity Hallucinogens – distort sensory and perceptual experience • Cannabis – produce mild, relaxed euphoria • Alcohol – produces relaxed euphoria, decreases in inhibitions • MDMA – produces a warm, friendly euphoria Psychoactive Drugs (5 main classes) • • • • Depressants—inhibit brain activity Opiates—pain relief and euphoria Stimulants—increase brain activity Psychedelics (hallucinogens)—distort sensory perceptions • Inhalants – (not actually drugs)solvents, aerosols, gases – e.g. NO2, toluene, action due to hypoxia Depressants • Alcohol—CNS depressant • Barbiturates & benzodiazepine hypnotics—induce sleep • Ambien® - a nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic of the imidazopyridine class • Benzodiazepine tranquilizers (minor) —relieve anxiety e.g. Xanax® Opiates Chemically similar to morphine, have strong painrelieving properties, and euphoria • Mimic the brain‘s endorphins • Heroin, methadone • Percodan, Demerol, Oxycontin • Hydrocodone Stimulants • • • • • Caffeine Nicotine Amphetamines Cocaine Stimulant induced psychosis (Mainly seen with Methamphetamine & Cocaine abuse) ―Club‖ Drugs • Ecstasy (MDMA)—feelings of euphoria, increased well-being. • Side effects—dehydration, hyperthermia, tremors, rapid heartbeat • Dissociative anesthetics—include PCP & Ketamine. Deaden pain, produce stupor or coma, may induce hallucinations • GHB – Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (liquid ―X‖) *Drug Abuse* Recurrent drug (including alcohol) use that results in disruption of academic, social, or occupational functioning, or in legal or psychological problems What is Addiction? • It is a broad term that refers to a condition in which a person feels psychologically and physically compelled to take a specific drug. • Drug tolerance, physical & psychological dependence*, withdrawal, rebound effect Obsession, cravings. The Childhood Years: Motor Development • Basic Principles – Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot – Proximodistal trend – center-outward • Maturation – gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint • Developmental norms – median age – Cultural variations Cephalocaudal Trend Prenatal Development Childhood Proximodistal Trend Adolescence Adulthood Maturation Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Temperament • Easy—adaptable, positive mood, regular habits • Slow to warm up—low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations • Difficult—intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently • Average—unable to classify (1/3 of all children) Early Emotional Development: Attachment • Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers. • Separation anxiety is emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. Early Emotional Development: Attachment *Ainsworth’s Strange Situation* • Mother-child dyads were observed in a playroom under four conditions: – initial mother-child interaction – mother leaves infant alone in playroom – friendly stranger enters playroom – mother returns and greets child Early Emotional Development: Attachment • Separation anxiety – Ainsworth (1979) – The strange situation and patterns of attachment • Secure • Anxious-ambivalent • Avoidant • Disorganized Early Emotional Development: Attachment Forms of Attachment • Securely attached—explores the room when mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns • Avoidantly attached—a form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and acts coldly to her • Anxious-ambivalent attachment—a form of insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort Baumrind‘s Parenting Styles • Authoritarian parenting style • Permissive parenting styles – Permissive-indulgent – Permissive-indifferent • *Authoritative parenting style* Erik Erikson Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory • Biological in belief that there are innate drives to develop social relationships and that these promote survival (Darwinism) • Divided life span into eight (you will need to know all eight!)psychosocial stages, each associated with a different drive and a problem or crisis to resolve • Outcome of each stage varies along a continuum from positive to negative Stage 4 Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1 Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt Trust Versus Mistrust Is my world predictable and supportive? Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others First Years of Life Second Years of Life Prenatal Development Initiative Versus Guilt Industry Versus Inferiority Childhood Adolescence Am I good or bad? Fourth Thru Six Years Adulthood Am I competent or am I worthless Age 6 Thru Puberty Stage 1 (Birth–1) Trust vs. Mistrust • Infants must rely on others for care • Consistent and dependable care giving and meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust • Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust (Romanian example) Stage 2 (1–3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt • Children are discovering their own independence • Those given the opportunity to experience independence will gain a sense of autonomy • Children that are overly restrained or punished harshly will develop shame and doubt Stage 3 (3–5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt • Children are exposed to the wider social world and given greater responsibility • Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative, whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the child is made to feel too anxious or irresponsible Stage 4 (5–12 years) Industry vs. Inferiority • Stage of life surrounding mastery of knowledge and intellectual skills • Sense of competence and achievement leads to industry • Feeling incompetent and unproductive leads to inferiority Stage 5 (Adolescence) Identity vs. Role Confusion • Developing a sense of who one is and where one is going in life • Successful resolution leads to positive identity • Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity confusion or a negative identity (such as identifying with or joining a gang) Stage 6 (Young adulthood) Intimacy vs. Isolation • Age (from about 20 yrs – 39 yrs.) • Time for sharing oneself with another person • Capacity to hold commitments with others leads to intimacy • Failure to establish commitments leads to feelings of isolation Stage 7 (Middle adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation • Caring for others in family, friends, and work leads to sense of contribution to later generations • Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and meaninglessness Stage 8 (Late adulthood to Death)Integrity vs. Despair • Successful resolutions of all previous crises leads to integrity and the ability to see broad truths and advise those in earlier stages • Despair arises from feelings of helplessness and the bitter sense that life has been incomplete Jean Piaget Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood *Piaget‘s Theory of Cognitive Development* • Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930‘s • Piaget believed that ―children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world‖ • These ―understandings‖ are in the form of structures he called schemas Development of Schemas • Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge • Assimilation—process of taking new information or a new experience and fitting it into an already existing schema • Accommodation—process by which existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created in order to fit new information Stage 4 Stage 2 Stage 1 Sensorimotor Period Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence Birth Thru 2 Years Prenatal Development Childhood Stage 3 Preoperational Period Concrete Operational Period Development of Symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, Centration, and egocentrism Mental operations applied to concrete events; mastery of conservation, hierarchical classification 2 Thru 7 Years 7 Thru 11 Years Adolescence Adulthood Formal Operational Period Mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking Age 11 Thru Adulthood Piaget‘s Approach • Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions • Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults • Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‗stages‘ differing in how the world is understood • • • • Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2yrs) Information is gained through the senses and motor actions In this stage child perceives and manipulates but does not reason Symbols become internalized through language development Object permanence is acquired *Object Permanence* • The understanding that objects exist independent of one‘s actions or perceptions of them • Before 6 months infants act as if objects removed from sight cease to exist – Can be surprised by disappearance/reappearance of a face (peek-aboo) *Preoperational Stage (3 - 6 years)* • Emergence of symbolic thought • • • • Centration Egocentrism Lack the concept of conservation Animism Figure 10.8 Piaget’s conservation task Piaget‘s Conservation Task In conservation of number tests, two equivalent rows of coins are placed side by side and the child says that there is the same number in each row. Then one row is spread apart and the child is again asked if there is the same number in each. Concrete Operational Stage (7–12 years) • Understanding of mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought • Classification and categorization • Less egocentric • Inability to reason abstractly or hypothetically Formal Operational Stage (age 12 – adulthood) • Hypothetico-deductive reasoning • Adolescent egocentrism illustrated by the phenomenon of personal fable and imaginary audience Evaluating Piaget‘s Theory • Criticisms – Piaget underestimated children‘s abilities – Problems with stage theories – Universality • Vygotskey‘s sociocultural theory • Are some cognitive abilities innate? Vygotsky‘s Sociocultural Perspective (contrast to Piaget) • Emphasized the child‘s interaction with the social world (other people) as a cause of development • Vygotsky believed language to be the foundation for social interaction and thought • Piaget believed language was a byproduct of thought Vygotsky‘s Sociocultural Perspective • Vygotsky—children learn from interactions with other people – Zone of proximal development—what a child can do by interacting with another person, but can‘t do alone – Critical thinking based on dialogue with others who challenge ideas • Piaget—focused on children‘s interaction with the physical world Lawrence Kohlberg Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Stage 6 Stage 1 Punishment Orientation Right and wrong is determined by what is punished Stage 2 Naive Reward Orientation Right and wrong is determined by what is rewarded Preconventional Level Prenatal Development Childhood Stage 3 Good Boy/ Good Girl Orientation Right and wrong is determined by close others‘ approval or disapproval Stage 4 Concrete Authority Operational Orientation Period Right and wrong is determined by society‘s rules, and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly Conventional Level Adolescence Adulthood Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation Individual Principles and Conscience Orientation Right and wrong is determined by society‘s rules, which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute Right and wrong is determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and Justice Postconventional Level Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Prefrontal Cortex Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Stage 5 Identity Versus Confusion Who am I and where am I going? Adolescence Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Present Absent Present Identity Achievement (successful achievement of a sense of identity) Identity Foreclosure (unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values) Absent Commitment Crisis Identity Moratorium (active struggling for a sense of identity) Identity Foreclosure (absence of struggle for identity with no obvious concern about it) Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1 Intimacy Versus Isolation Shall I chare my life with another or live alone? Early Adulthood Prenatal Development Childhood Generativity Versus Self-absorption Will I produce something of real value Middle Adulthood Adolescence Adulthood Integrity Versus Despair Have I lived a full life? Late Adulthood 28 27 26 Age 25 24 Males 23 Gender and Sexuality 22 Females 21 20 19 ‗50 ‗55 ‗60 ‗65 ‗70 ‗75 ‗80 ‗85 ‗90 ‗95 ‗00 ‗05 Year Prenatal Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Gender and Sexuality Some Definitions • Sex—the biological category of male or female; sexual intercourse • Gender—cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity or femininity • Gender roles—behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits designated either masculine or feminine in a given culture • Gender identity—A person’s psychological sense of being male or female • Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional and erotic attractions Gender and Sexuality Gender Related Differences • Differences do not mean deficiencies • Overall: men and women more similar than different • Three main areas of gender differences – Personality – Cognitive abilities – Sexual attitudes and behaviors Gender and Sexuality Personality Differences • No significant differences between men and women have been found on most characteristics however • Women tend to be more nurturant than men • Men tend to be more assertive than women Gender and Sexuality Cognitive Differences • No differences for most cognitive abilities • Verbal, reading, and writing—females consistently score higher • Spatial skills—males outscore females on mentally rotating objects, females score better on remembering locations of objects • Math Skills—males score slightly better than females but the average difference is very small (Georgiou, 2007) (Note: taken from SAT scores, more females than males take SAT, more variance in females scores) Gender and Sexuality Gender Role Development • Between ages 2-3 years, children can identify themselves and other children as boys or girls. The concept of gender or sex, however, is based more on outward characteristics such as clothing • Toddler girls tend to play more with dolls and ask for help more than boys • Toddler boys tend to play more with trucks and wagons, and tend to play more actively • After age 3 years we see consistent gender differences in preferred toys and activities Gender and Sexuality Social Learning Theory Gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling Gender and Sexuality Some Definitions • Gender schema theory—the theory that gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity • Intersexed—condition in which a person’s biological sex is ambiguous, often combining aspects of both male and female anatomy and/or physiology. • Transgendered—condition in which a person’s psychological gender identity conflicts with his or her biological sex. • Transsexual (Term not used anymore) —(Now postoptransgendered) a transgendered person who undergoes surgery and hormone treatments to physically transform his or her body into the opposite sex. . Gender and Sexuality Gender Identity Disorder •Persistent discomfort about one’s physical gender along with the desire to be a member of the opposite sex •Previously termed ―transsexualism‖ •May undergo hormone treatment and/or sexreassignment surgery Gender and Sexuality Sexual Orientation • Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional and erotic attractions • Heterosexual—sexual attraction for the opposite sex • Homosexual—sexual attraction for the same sex • Gay—typically used to describe male homosexuals • Lesbian—typically used to describe female homosexuals • Bisexual—sexual attraction for both sexes Gender and Sexuality Determination of Sexual Orientation • Genetics—role suggested by twin and family studies • Brain structure—differences found in hypothalamus of homosexual (Gay) and heterosexual men • Complex issue with no clear answers Gender and Sexuality Some General Findings • Sexual orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained aspect of the self that probably does not change • No consistent relationship between orientation and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual experience) • Controversial findings suggest a possible relationship among prenatal stress, androgens, and the development of brain systems that play a role in sexual attraction Gender and Sexuality Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) • STD—any of several infectious diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse or other sexual contact • Of the 19 million cases of STDs diagnosed annually in the US, about half are among those aged 15 to 24 • Many STDs have mild or no symptoms, yet left untreated can cause serious health problems • According to the CDC (2006) 26% of females between the ages of 14-19 have a STD