Download Prenatal Development Chapter 5 pp 172 - 179

Prenatal Development
Chapter 5 pp 172 - 179
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Developmental Psychology
• What shapes the way we change over time?
• Focus on psychological changes across the
entire life span
• Every area of psychology can be looked at
from this perspective
–
–
–
–
biological development
social development
cognitive/perceptual development
personality development
Fundamental Issues:
Nature vs. Nurture
• What is role of heredity vs. environment in
determining psychological makeup?
• These are some of our greatest societal
debates
• Both are important – some characteristics
are influenced more by genetics and others
more by environment
Overview of Genetics
• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• Chromosomes are long twisted strands
of DNA
• DNA is the chemical basis of heredity
and carries instructions
• Genes are the basic unit of heredity;
single unit of DNA on the chromosome
Dominant and Recessive Genes
• Genotype—underlying genetic makeup
(dominant genes will be expressed,
recessive genes may not)
• Phenotype—traits that are expressed
• Dominant genes—will always be
expressed if present (e.g. Brown eyes)
• Recessive genes—will not be
expressed unless they are in a pair (e.g.
Blue eyes)
Characteristic
Hair
Dominant
Dark
Curly
Recessive
Light
Straight
Eyes
Brown
Hands
5 fingers
Normal limbs
Broad lips
Dimples
Grey
Blue
Extra fingers?
Limb dwarfing
Thin lips
No dimples
Face
Weeks Since Conception
9
12
16
Prenatal
Development
20
Childhood
24
28
Adolescence
32
Adulthood
36
38
Full Term
Progress Before Birth:
Prenatal Development
• 3 phases
– germinal stage = first 2 weeks
• conception, implantation, formation of placenta
– *embryonic stage* = 2 weeks – 2 months
• formation of vital organs and systems
– fetal stage = 9 weeks – birth
• bodily growth continues, movement capability
begins, brain cells multiply
• age of viability
Stages
1
4
6
5
Prenatal
Development
3
2
Childhood
Adolescence
7
Adulthood
• Embryonic stage – 2 – 9
weeks when almost all of
the vital organs & bodily
systems start to form.
• This is the stage of
greatest vulnerability to
teratogens - any agent
that causes a birth defect
(e.g., drugs, radiation,
viruses)
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Environmental Factors
and Prenatal Development
• Maternal nutrition
– Malnutrition linked to increased risk of birth complications,
neurological problems, and psychopathology
• Maternal drug use
– Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational drugs
– Fetal alcohol syndrome – collection of congenital
problems associated with excessive alcohol use during
pregnancy The #1 preventable cause of birth defects in the
U.S.
• Maternal stress level
Environmental Factors
and Prenatal Development
• Maternal illness
– Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes,
HIV (AIDS), severe influenza
– Prenatal health care
– Prevention through guidance
Maternal Nutrition – need adequate nutrition and take
prenatal vitamins
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Maternal Drug Use
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Psychoactive Drugs
*Psychoactive drugs*
are any substances
that modify mental,
emotional, or
behavioral
functioning.
Principal Abused Drugs and Their Effects
•
•
•
•
Narcotics (opiates) – pain relieving
Sedatives – sleep inducing
Stimulants – increase CNS activity
Hallucinogens – distort sensory and
perceptual experience
• Cannabis – produce mild, relaxed euphoria
• Alcohol – produces relaxed euphoria,
decreases in inhibitions
• MDMA – produces a warm, friendly
euphoria
Psychoactive Drugs
(5 main classes)
•
•
•
•
Depressants—inhibit brain activity
Opiates—pain relief and euphoria
Stimulants—increase brain activity
Psychedelics (hallucinogens)—distort
sensory perceptions
• Inhalants – (not actually drugs)solvents,
aerosols, gases – e.g. NO2, toluene, action
due to hypoxia
Depressants
• Alcohol—CNS depressant
• Barbiturates & benzodiazepine
hypnotics—induce sleep
• Ambien® - a nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic of the
imidazopyridine class
• Benzodiazepine tranquilizers
(minor) —relieve anxiety e.g.
Xanax®
Opiates
Chemically similar to
morphine, have strong painrelieving properties, and
euphoria
• Mimic the brain‘s endorphins
• Heroin, methadone
• Percodan, Demerol,
Oxycontin
• Hydrocodone
Stimulants
•
•
•
•
•
Caffeine
Nicotine
Amphetamines
Cocaine
Stimulant induced
psychosis (Mainly
seen with
Methamphetamine &
Cocaine abuse)
―Club‖ Drugs
• Ecstasy (MDMA)—feelings of euphoria,
increased well-being.
• Side effects—dehydration, hyperthermia,
tremors, rapid heartbeat
• Dissociative anesthetics—include PCP &
Ketamine. Deaden pain, produce stupor or
coma, may induce hallucinations
• GHB – Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (liquid ―X‖)
*Drug Abuse*
Recurrent drug (including alcohol)
use that results in disruption of
academic, social, or occupational
functioning, or in legal or
psychological problems
What is Addiction?
• It is a broad term that refers to a condition
in which a person feels psychologically and
physically compelled to take a specific
drug.
• Drug tolerance, physical & psychological
dependence*, withdrawal, rebound effect
Obsession, cravings.
The Childhood Years: Motor Development
• Basic Principles
– Cephalocaudal trend – head to foot
– Proximodistal trend – center-outward
• Maturation – gradual unfolding of
genetic blueprint
• Developmental norms – median age
– Cultural variations
Cephalocaudal
Trend
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Proximodistal
Trend
Adolescence
Adulthood
Maturation
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Temperament
• Easy—adaptable, positive mood, regular
habits
• Slow to warm up—low activity, somewhat
slow to adapt, generally withdraw from
new situations
• Difficult—intense emotions, irritable, cry
frequently
• Average—unable to classify (1/3 of all
children)
Early Emotional Development:
Attachment
• Attachment refers to the close, emotional
bonds of affection that develop between
infants and their caregivers.
• Separation anxiety is emotional distress
seen in many infants when they are
separated from people with whom they have
formed an attachment.
Early Emotional Development:
Attachment
*Ainsworth’s Strange Situation*
• Mother-child dyads were observed in
a playroom under four conditions:
– initial mother-child interaction
– mother leaves infant alone in playroom
– friendly stranger enters playroom
– mother returns and greets child
Early Emotional Development:
Attachment
• Separation anxiety
– Ainsworth (1979)
– The strange situation and patterns of
attachment
• Secure
• Anxious-ambivalent
• Avoidant
• Disorganized
Early Emotional Development:
Attachment
Forms of Attachment
• Securely attached—explores the room when mother
is present, becomes upset and explores less when
mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother
returns
• Avoidantly attached—a form of insecure attachment
in which child avoids mother and acts coldly to her
• Anxious-ambivalent attachment—a form of insecure
attachment where the child remains close to mother
and remains distressed despite her attempts to
comfort
Baumrind‘s Parenting Styles
• Authoritarian parenting style
• Permissive parenting styles
– Permissive-indulgent
– Permissive-indifferent
• *Authoritative parenting style*
Erik
Erikson
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Erikson’s Psychosocial
Theory
• Biological in belief that there are innate
drives to develop social relationships and
that these promote survival (Darwinism)
• Divided life span into eight (you will need to
know all eight!)psychosocial stages, each
associated with a different drive and a
problem or crisis to resolve
• Outcome of each stage varies along a
continuum from positive to negative
Stage 4
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 1
Autonomy
Versus Shame
and Doubt
Trust Versus
Mistrust
Is my world
predictable and
supportive?
Can I do things
myself or must
I always rely
on others
First Years
of Life
Second
Years of Life
Prenatal
Development
Initiative
Versus Guilt
Industry
Versus
Inferiority
Childhood
Adolescence
Am I good
or bad?
Fourth Thru
Six Years
Adulthood
Am I competent
or am
I worthless
Age 6 Thru
Puberty
Stage 1 (Birth–1)
Trust vs. Mistrust
• Infants must rely on others for care
• Consistent and dependable care
giving and meeting infant needs
leads to a sense of trust
• Infants who are not well cared for will
develop mistrust (Romanian
example)
Stage 2 (1–3 years)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Children are discovering their own
independence
• Those given the opportunity to
experience independence will gain a
sense of autonomy
• Children that are overly restrained or
punished harshly will develop shame and
doubt
Stage 3 (3–5 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt
• Children are exposed to the wider
social world and given greater
responsibility
• Sense of accomplishment leads to
initiative, whereas feelings of guilt
can emerge if the child is made to
feel too anxious or irresponsible
Stage 4 (5–12 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority
• Stage of life surrounding mastery of
knowledge and intellectual skills
• Sense of competence and
achievement leads to industry
• Feeling incompetent and
unproductive leads to inferiority
Stage 5 (Adolescence)
Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Developing a sense of who one is
and where one is going in life
• Successful resolution leads to
positive identity
• Unsuccessful resolution leads to
identity confusion or a negative
identity (such as identifying with or
joining a gang)
Stage 6 (Young adulthood)
Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Age (from about 20 yrs – 39 yrs.)
• Time for sharing oneself with
another person
• Capacity to hold commitments
with others leads to intimacy
• Failure to establish commitments
leads to feelings of isolation
Stage 7 (Middle adulthood)
Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Caring for others in family, friends,
and work leads to sense of
contribution to later generations
• Stagnation comes from a sense of
boredom and meaninglessness
Stage 8 (Late adulthood to
Death)Integrity vs. Despair
• Successful resolutions of all previous
crises leads to integrity and the ability
to see broad truths and advise those in
earlier stages
• Despair arises from feelings of
helplessness and the bitter sense that
life has been incomplete
Jean
Piaget
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
*Piaget‘s Theory of
Cognitive Development*
• Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist
who became leading theorist in 1930‘s
• Piaget believed that ―children are active
thinkers, constantly trying to construct more
advanced understandings of the world‖
• These ―understandings‖ are in the form of
structures he called schemas
Development of Schemas
• Schemas are frameworks that develop to
help organize knowledge
• Assimilation—process of taking new
information or a new experience and fitting
it into an already existing schema
• Accommodation—process by which existing
schemas are changed or new schemas are
created in order to fit new information
Stage 4
Stage 2
Stage 1
Sensorimotor
Period
Coordination
of sensory input
and motor
responses;
development
of object
permanence
Birth Thru
2 Years
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Stage 3
Preoperational
Period
Concrete
Operational
Period
Development
of Symbolic
thought marked
by irreversibility,
Centration, and
egocentrism
Mental operations
applied to
concrete events;
mastery of
conservation,
hierarchical
classification
2 Thru 7 Years
7 Thru 11 Years
Adolescence
Adulthood
Formal
Operational
Period
Mental operations
applied to
abstract ideas;
logical, systematic
thinking
Age 11 Thru
Adulthood
Piaget‘s Approach
• Primary method was to ask children to
solve problems and to question them
about the reasoning behind their solutions
• Discovered that children think in radically
different ways than adults
• Proposed that development occurs as a
series of ‗stages‘ differing in how the world
is understood
•
•
•
•
Sensorimotor Stage (birth – 2yrs)
Information is gained through the senses
and motor actions
In this stage child perceives and
manipulates but does not reason
Symbols become internalized through
language development
Object permanence is acquired
*Object Permanence*
• The understanding that objects exist
independent of one‘s actions or
perceptions of them
• Before 6 months infants act as if objects
removed from sight cease to exist
– Can be surprised by
disappearance/reappearance of a face (peek-aboo)
*Preoperational Stage (3 - 6 years)*
• Emergence of symbolic thought
•
•
•
•
Centration
Egocentrism
Lack the concept of conservation
Animism
Figure 10.8 Piaget’s conservation task
Piaget‘s Conservation Task
In conservation of number tests, two equivalent rows of coins
are placed side by side and the child says that there is the same
number in each row. Then one row is spread apart and the child
is again asked if there is the same number in each.
Concrete Operational Stage (7–12 years)
• Understanding of mental operations leading
to increasingly logical thought
• Classification and categorization
• Less egocentric
• Inability to reason abstractly or hypothetically
Formal Operational Stage (age 12 –
adulthood)
• Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
• Adolescent egocentrism illustrated by the
phenomenon of personal fable and imaginary
audience
Evaluating Piaget‘s Theory
• Criticisms
– Piaget underestimated children‘s abilities
– Problems with stage theories
– Universality
• Vygotskey‘s sociocultural theory
• Are some cognitive abilities innate?
Vygotsky‘s Sociocultural Perspective
(contrast to Piaget)
• Emphasized the child‘s interaction with the
social world (other people) as a cause of
development
• Vygotsky believed language to be the
foundation for social interaction and
thought
• Piaget believed language was a byproduct
of thought
Vygotsky‘s
Sociocultural Perspective
• Vygotsky—children learn from interactions
with other people
– Zone of proximal development—what a child can
do by interacting with another person, but can‘t
do alone
– Critical thinking based on dialogue with others
who challenge ideas
• Piaget—focused on children‘s interaction
with the physical world
Lawrence
Kohlberg
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Stage 6
Stage 1
Punishment
Orientation
Right and
wrong is
determined
by what is
punished
Stage 2
Naive
Reward
Orientation
Right and
wrong is
determined
by what is
rewarded
Preconventional
Level
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Stage 3
Good Boy/
Good Girl
Orientation
Right and
wrong is
determined by
close others‘
approval or
disapproval
Stage 4
Concrete
Authority
Operational
Orientation
Period
Right and
wrong is
determined by
society‘s rules,
and laws,
which should
be obeyed
rigidly
Conventional
Level
Adolescence
Adulthood
Stage 5
Social
Contract
Orientation
Individual
Principles
and
Conscience
Orientation
Right and
wrong is
determined by
society‘s rules,
which are
viewed as
fallible rather
than absolute
Right and
wrong is
determined by
abstract ethical
principles that
emphasize
equity and
Justice
Postconventional
Level
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Prefrontal
Cortex
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Stage 5
Identity
Versus
Confusion
Who am I
and where
am I going?
Adolescence
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Present
Absent
Present
Identity Achievement
(successful achievement
of a sense of identity)
Identity Foreclosure
(unquestioning adoption of
parental or societal values)
Absent
Commitment
Crisis
Identity Moratorium
(active struggling for
a sense of identity)
Identity Foreclosure
(absence of struggle for identity
with no obvious concern about it)
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Stage 3
Stage 2
Stage 1
Intimacy
Versus
Isolation
Shall I chare my
life with another
or live alone?
Early
Adulthood
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Generativity
Versus
Self-absorption
Will I produce
something of
real value
Middle
Adulthood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Integrity
Versus
Despair
Have I lived
a full life?
Late
Adulthood
28
27
26
Age
25
24
Males
23
Gender and Sexuality
22
Females
21
20
19
‗50 ‗55 ‗60 ‗65 ‗70 ‗75 ‗80 ‗85 ‗90 ‗95 ‗00 ‗05
Year
Prenatal
Development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Gender and Sexuality
Some Definitions
• Sex—the biological category of male or female; sexual
intercourse
• Gender—cultural, social, and psychological
meanings associated with masculinity or femininity
• Gender roles—behaviors, attitudes, and personality
traits designated either masculine or feminine in a given
culture
• Gender identity—A person’s psychological sense of
being male or female
• Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional
and erotic attractions
Gender and Sexuality
Gender Related Differences
• Differences do not mean deficiencies
• Overall: men and women more similar
than different
• Three main areas of gender differences
– Personality
– Cognitive abilities
– Sexual attitudes and behaviors
Gender and Sexuality
Personality Differences
• No significant differences between men
and women have been found on most
characteristics however
• Women tend to be more nurturant than
men
• Men tend to be more assertive than
women
Gender and Sexuality
Cognitive Differences
• No differences for most cognitive abilities
• Verbal, reading, and writing—females
consistently score higher
• Spatial skills—males outscore females on
mentally rotating objects, females score better
on remembering locations of objects
• Math Skills—males score slightly better than
females but the average difference is very small
(Georgiou, 2007) (Note: taken from SAT scores,
more females than males take SAT, more
variance in females scores)
Gender and Sexuality
Gender Role Development
• Between ages 2-3 years, children can identify
themselves and other children as boys or girls.
The concept of gender or sex, however, is based
more on outward characteristics such as clothing
• Toddler girls tend to play more with dolls and
ask for help more than boys
• Toddler boys tend to play more with trucks and
wagons, and tend to play more actively
• After age 3 years we see consistent gender
differences in preferred toys and activities
Gender and Sexuality
Social Learning Theory
Gender roles are acquired through the basic
processes of learning, including
reinforcement, punishment, and modeling
Gender and Sexuality
Some Definitions
• Gender schema theory—the theory that gender-role
development is influenced by the formation of schemas,
or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity
• Intersexed—condition in which a person’s biological sex
is ambiguous, often combining aspects of both male and
female anatomy and/or physiology.
• Transgendered—condition in which a person’s
psychological gender identity conflicts with his or her
biological sex.
• Transsexual (Term not used anymore) —(Now postoptransgendered) a transgendered person who undergoes
surgery and hormone treatments to physically transform
his or her body into the opposite sex. .
Gender and Sexuality
Gender Identity Disorder
•Persistent discomfort about one’s physical
gender along with the desire to be a member
of the opposite sex
•Previously termed ―transsexualism‖
•May undergo hormone treatment and/or sexreassignment surgery
Gender and Sexuality
Sexual Orientation
• Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional
and erotic attractions
• Heterosexual—sexual attraction for the opposite sex
• Homosexual—sexual attraction for the same sex
• Gay—typically used to describe male homosexuals
• Lesbian—typically used to describe female
homosexuals
• Bisexual—sexual attraction for both sexes
Gender and Sexuality
Determination of Sexual Orientation
• Genetics—role suggested by twin and family
studies
• Brain structure—differences found in
hypothalamus of homosexual (Gay) and
heterosexual men
• Complex issue with no clear answers
Gender and Sexuality
Some General Findings
• Sexual orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained
aspect of the self that probably does not change
• No consistent relationship between orientation and
childhood experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse,
sexual experience)
• Controversial findings suggest a possible
relationship among prenatal stress, androgens, and
the development of brain systems that play a role in
sexual attraction
Gender and Sexuality
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)
• STD—any of several infectious diseases transmitted
through sexual intercourse or other sexual contact
• Of the 19 million cases of STDs diagnosed annually in
the US, about half are among those aged 15 to 24
• Many STDs have mild or no symptoms, yet left
untreated can cause serious health problems
• According to the CDC (2006) 26% of females between
the ages of 14-19 have a STD