Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Textbook for Beginning Koasati Yok sat
Document related concepts
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Lexical semantics wikipedia , lookup
Germanic strong verb wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Irish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Navajo grammar wikipedia , lookup
Swedish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Icelandic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Georgian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sotho verbs wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
Textbook for Beginning Koasati 1. Making Statements and Asking Questions In Koasati, words sometimes change when you use them in a sentence. In sentences like the one below,, chok-‐fi becomes chok-‐fok, sa-‐wa becomes sa-‐wok, and fii-‐to becomes fii-‐tok. fii-‐to turkey sa-‐wa raccoon sat-‐ta turtle chok-‐fi rabbit Yok sat-‐tok om. This is a rabbit. Here are some examples with pictures: Yok chok-‐fok om. This is a rabbit. Yok sa-‐wok om. This is a raccoon. Yok fii-‐tok om. This is a turkey. You can use the statement pattern to ask and answer questions, too: “Naa-‐sok om-‐mi, yok?” (What is this?) “Nak-‐sok om-‐mi, ak-‐kok?” (Who is that?) Yok sat-‐tok om-‐mi? Yok chok-‐fok om-‐mi? Yok fiitok om-‐mi? Is this a turtle? Is this a rabbit? Is this a turkey? Ai, sat-‐tok om. Ai, Yes, it's a turtle. chok-‐fok om. In-‐ko, sa-‐wok Yes, it's a rabbit. om. No, it's a raccoon. “Nak-‐sok om-‐mi, yok?” (Who is this?) Yok a-‐lik-‐chok om This is a doctor. You can also answer questions like this: Naason ishiicha? what do you see? Sawa toklon hiichal. I see two raccoons. And this: “Naa-‐sok om-‐mi, yok?” (What is this?) Yok thathok This is a fish. om. Yok thatho This is a red fish. hommok om. 2. Possession aksali knife amaksali my knife chimaksali your knife (speaking to one person) imaksali his/her/their knife komaksali our knife hachimaksali your knife (speaking to two or more people) palaana ampalaana plate my plate chimpalaana your plate (speaking to one person) impalaana his/her/their plate kompalaana our plate hachimpalaana your plate (speaking to two or more people) Before vowels, the letter m, and the letter p, the possession prefixes are am-‐, chim-‐, im-‐, kom-‐, and ha-‐ chim-‐. That's why those are the prefixes that show up before ak-‐sa-‐li and pa-‐laa-‐na. But before all the other consonants, the prefixes change to an-‐, chin-‐, in-‐, kon-‐, and ha-‐chin-‐. chofa fork anchofa my fork chinchofa your fork (speaking to one person) inchofa his/her/their fork konchofa hachinchofa our fork your fork (speaking to two or more people) 3. Simple commands latafk! kick! lataafka? is he/she kicking? bitl! dance! biitli? is he/she dancing? ip! eat (one thing)! iipa? is he/she eating it? isk! drink! iisko? is he/she drinking it? tabatk! catch! tabaatka? is he/she catching it? waik! fly! waika? is he/she flying? talw! sing! talwa? is he/she singing? waliik! Run! waliika? is he/she/it running? chayaahl! Walk! chayaahli? is he/she/it walking? Wowoohk! Bark! wowoohka? is he/she/it barking? Inchaal! Write! inchaali? is he/she/it writing? The basic form of the word meaning ‘kick’ is latafka-‐. To make a command, you drop the last vowel: Latafk! ‘Kick!’ Latafk! Kick! Lataafka? Is he/she kicking? Lataafk. He/she is kicking. If you’re asking a question about something going on right now, you make the second-‐to-‐last vowel long and nasalize the last vowel. That means that latafka becomes Lataafka ‘Is he/she kicking?’ If you’re making a statement about something going on now, you drop the last vowel: Lataafk ‘He/she is kicking.’ You can do the same thing with the word for ‘dance’, bitli-‐: Bitl! Dance! Biitli? Is he/she dancing? Biitl. He/she is dancing. A special rule kicks in if the second-‐to-‐last syllable in a verb ends in a diphthong (a combination sound like ai or aw). The basic form of the verb ‘fly’ is waika-‐. It isn’t possible to lengthen the sound ai, so the statement ‘He/she is flying’ sounds the same as the command: Waik! Fly! Waika? Is he/she/it flying? Waik. He/she is flying. The same is true when the second-‐to-‐last syllable of a verb ends in the sounds l, m, or n: Talw! Sing! Talwa? Is he/she singing? Talw. He/she is singing. You can also add whoever is doing the action. The person or thing doing the action gets a -‐k at the end. So foosi ‘bird’ becomes foosik and taiyosi ‘girl’ becomes taiyosik. Here are some examples: Foosik waika? Is the bird flying? Taiyosik chayaahli? Is the girl walking? Ai, foosik waik. Yes, the bird is flying. Ai, taiyosik chayaahl. Yes, the girl is walking. Sometimes you want to tell someone NOT to do something. To do that, you just take the ‘you’ form of the verb and add -‐nna: verb: potooli? is he/she touching it? ‘you’ form: potoo-‐chi? are you touching it? ‘don’t’ command: potoo-‐chi-‐nna! don’t touch it! verb: afaaka? is he/she laughing? ‘you’ form: afaa-‐hiska? are you laughing? ‘don’t’ command: afaa-‐hiska-‐nna! don’t laugh! 4. Making Sentences Sentences often include subjects (the one doing the action) and objects (the people or things affected by the action). Subjects in Koasati are usually marked with -‐k. Objects are usually marked by nasalizing the last vowel of the noun. So pokko ‘ball’ becomes pokko when it’s an object. Koasati doesn’t have nouns ending in consonants. When a word ending in a consonant is borrowed into Koasati, -‐ka is added to make it fit the language: Jacob-‐ka Jacob Janice-‐ka Janice Naanosik pokko lataafka? Is the little boy kicking the ball? Ai, naanosik lataafk, pokko. Yes, the little boy is kicking the ball. The object normally comes before the verb, but sometimes you can add it to the end. Taiyosik pokko thoohli? Is the little girl chasing the ball? Ai, taiyosik thoohl, pokko. Yes, the little girl is chasing the ball. Taiyosik pokko tabaatka? Is the little girl catching the ball? Ai, taiyosik pokko tabaatk. Yes, the little girl is catching the ball. Naanosik pokko sbakoohli? Is the little boy throwing the ball? Inko, naanosik pokko tabaatk. No, the little boy is catching the ball. Naanosik tohnachi iipa? Is the little boy eating the cantaloupe? Ai, naanosik tohnachi iip. Yes, the little boy is eating the cantaloupe. Iisa talli? Is he building a house? Ai, iisa tal. Yes, he is building a house. Jacob-‐kak oki iisko? Is Jacob drinking water? Ai, Jacob-‐kak oki iisk. Yes, Jacob is drinking water. Pokko choffiichi? Is he bouncing a ball? 5. Using Prefixes cha-‐ my, me, I chi-‐ your, you ko-‐ our, us, we hachi-‐ your (2+), you all These type of prefixes, called CHA prefixes, have three uses: •for showing possession with body parts and some family terms •for the objects of verbs like ‘see’ •for the subjects of adjectives and verbs like ‘want’ chahakcho my ear chahiich he/she sees me chihakcho your ear chihiich he/she sees you hakcho (his/her/their) ear hiich he/she sees it/him/her kohakcho our ears kohiich he/she sees us hachihakcho your (2+) ears hachihiich he/she sees you all chakaano? am I good? chikaano? are you good? kaano? is he/he good? kokaano? are we good? chabanna? do I want it? chibanna? do you want it? banna? does he/she want it? kobanna? do we want it? hachibanna? do you all want it? Koasati verbs sometimes take prefixes to show where an action takes place: chokkool he/she is sitting paachokkool he/she is sitting on top of something itachokkool he/she is sitting on ground/floor oochokkool he/she is sitting in water, mud onachokkool he/she is sitting at (a table) 6. VERB CATEGORIES Li VERBS Verbs (action words) in Koasati take endings to indicate who is doing the action. Verbs that end in -‐li use the endings below to show who is doing the action: bataapli-‐li? am I hitting it? bataap-‐chi? are you hitting it? bataapli? is he/she hitting it? bataap-‐hili? are we hitting it? bataap-‐hachi? are you all hitting it? Here are some things to notice: • the ‘he/she’ form doesn’t have an ending. • the final -‐li on the verb gets dropped before -‐chi, -‐hili, and -‐hachi. You can turn the questions above into statements by dropping the last vowel: bataapli-‐li? am I hitting it? bataapli? bataap-‐hili? → bataapli-‐l I am hitting it is he/she hitting it? → bataapl he/she is hitting it are we hitting it? bataap-‐hil we are hitting it → Here’s another verb that works the same way: inchaali-‐li? am I writing? inchaa-‐chi? are you writing? inchaali? is he/she writing? inchaa-‐hili? are we writing? inchaa-‐hachi? are you all hitting it? Sometimes you don’t see the –li on the end of a verb, but it has the same pattern: koyooffi? is he/she cutting it (once)? stilyooffi? is he/she putting on (pants)? haaththi? is he/she putting on (shoes)? ayammi? is he/she stirring it? LI verb: Hidden LI verb: aboosli-‐li? am I roasting it? koyooffi-‐li? am I cutting it (once)? aboos-‐chi? are you roasting it? koyoof-‐chi? are you cutting it (once)? aboosli? is he/she roasting it? koyooffi? is he/she cutting it (once)? aboos-‐hili? are we roasting it? koyoof-‐hili? are we cutting it (once)? aboos-‐hachi? are you all roasting it? koyoof-‐hachi? are you all cutting it (once)? Ka VERBS Verbs that end in -‐ka use the suffixes (endings) below to show who is doing the action: waika-‐li? am I flying? wai-‐hiska? are you flying? waika? is he/she/it flying? wai-‐hilka? are we flying? wai-‐haska? are you all flying? Notice that -‐ka disappears before the suffixes -‐hiska, -‐hilka, and -‐haska. Questions can be turned into statements by dropping the last vowel: waika-‐li? am I flying? → waika-‐l I am flying waika? is he/she/it flying? → waik he/she/it is flying wai-‐hilka? are we flying? → wai-‐hilk we are flying The endings for KA verbs are just a little different from LI verbs: bataapli-‐li? am I hitting it? bataap-‐chi? are you hitting it? bataapli? is he/she hitting it? bataap-‐hili? are we hitting it? bataap-‐hachi? are you all hitting it? If a verb ends in -‐ka, it’s probably the same as the verb ‘fly’. Here’s another verb that works the same way: naathiika-‐li? am I speaking? naathii-‐hiska? are you speaking? naathiika? is he/she speaking? naathii-‐hilka? are we speaking? naathii-‐haska? are you all speaking? A few verbs are “hidden” KA verbs. These end in -‐ko or -‐ki, but act the same as other KA verbs: iisko-‐li? am I drinking? chaakki-‐li? am I catching up? iis-‐hiska? are you drinking? chaak-‐hiska? are you catching up? iisko? is he/she drinking? chaakki? is he/she catching up? iis-‐hilka? are we drinking? chaak-‐hilka? are we catching up? iis-‐haska? are you all drinking? chaak-‐haska? are you all catching up? SING verbs These verbs end in two different consonants and a vowel (...CCV) and are not LI verbs or KA verbs. They mark the person doing the action inside of the verb: talwa-‐li? am I singing? ta<chi>lwa? are you singing? talwa? is he/she singing? ta<li>lwa? are we singing? ta<hachi>lwa? are you all singing? You can turn the questions above into statements by dropping the last vowel: talwa-‐li? am I singing? → talwa-‐l I am singing ta<li>lwa? are we singing? → ta<li>lw we are singing Here’s another verb that works the same way: ohompa-‐li? am I eating? oho<chi>mpa? are you eating? ohompa? is he/she eating? oho<li>mpa? are we eating? oho<hachi>mpa? are you all eating? SEE Verbs A few verbs in Koasati show the person doing the action with a prefix when the person doing the action is ‘you’, ‘we’, and ‘you all’: hiicha-‐li? do I see it? is-‐hiicha? do you see it? hiicha? does he/she see it? il-‐hiicha? do we see it? has-‐hiicha? do you all see it? A few verbs in this class start with ii. The ii deletes after a prefix. iipa-‐li? am I eating? iimo-‐li? am I gathering them? is-‐pa? are you eating? is-‐mo? are you gathering them? iipa? is he/she eating? iimo? is he/she gathering them? il-‐pa? are we eating? il-‐mo? are we gathering them? has-‐pa? are you all eating? has-‐mo? are you all gathering them? VERB SUMMARY All four classes of verbs use a suffix -‐li to express ‘I’. To express ‘you’, ‘we’, and ‘you all’, some verb classes use suffixes, some use infixes, and some use prefixes. Use suffixes: a. LI verbs bataapli-‐li? am I hitting it? bataap-‐chi? are you hitting it? bataapli? is he/she hitting it? bataap-‐hili? are we hitting it? bataap-‐hachi? are you all hitting it? b. KA verbs waika-‐li? am I flying? wai-‐hiska? are you flying? waika? is he/she/it flying? wai-‐hilka? are we flying? wai-‐haska? are you all flying? SING verbs talwa-‐li? am I singing? ta<chi>lwa? are you singing? talwa? is he/she singing? ta<li>lwa? are we singing? ta<hachi>lwa? are you all singing? Use infixes: Use prefixes: SEE verbs hiicha-‐li? do I see it? is-‐hiicha? do you see it? hiicha? does he/she see it? il-‐hiicha? do we see it? has-‐hiicha? do you all see it? 7. FUTURE and PAST TENSE To talk about the future in Koasati, you add a suffix -‐laho to the base form of the verb. bitlilaho he/she will dance afaakalaho he/she will laugh talwalaho he/she will sing hichalaho he/she will see it Here are the different persons for hichalaho ‘he/she will see it’: hichallaho I will see it ishichalaho will you see it? hichalaho he/she will see it ilhichalaho we will see it hashichalaho will you all see it? Note that there is a difference between these two statements so you won’t confuse them: hichallaho I will see it ‘I will see it’ has two l’s, while ‘he/she will see it’ has one l. Chi-‐ hichalaho he/she will see it hicha-‐ l-‐ laho. I will see you (There is no real way to say “good-‐bye”’ in Koasati). When you talk about the past, you just add a suffix -‐to to the end of the verb. When it’s a question, it becomes -‐to. When it’s a statement, it becomes -‐t. Tamooka saayon amaa-‐hílka-‐t We went last night. Amaa-‐hilka-‐to? Did we go? You add -‐t(o) when something happened anytime in the past. You add a suffix -‐sa to a verb when you want to say you WERE doing something yesterday or today when something else happened. The suffix -‐ sa doubles the vowel in front of it. In a question, it becomes -‐sa. Naason sanchiisa? What were you doing? In a statement, it becomes -‐s. Inchaalíliis. Abooslíliis. I was writing. I was barbecuing. Naathiikáliis. Hopooníliis I was speaking. I was cooking. Libaatlíliis. I was cooking / burning it. You also use the -‐s(a) past when something DIDN’T happen yesterday or today: Nihtakap chofotakkoos. I didn’t jump yesterday. You also use the -‐s(a) past if you’re describing a condition that existed yesterday or today: Tamookasaap lokbáahoosiis. It was very hot last night. •-‐t(o) is for anything before yesterday •-‐t(o) can be used for yesterday and today if it means it happened successfully once •otherwise, -‐s(a) is used for yesterday and today Now you can answer three different types of questions: Naason sanchi? "What are you doing?" Naason sanchaahi? “What are you going to do?” Naason sanchiisa? "What were you doing?" ADDING EMPHASIS In Koasati you can express yourself by drawing out parts of a word. The word lokba by itself means ‘hot’. Here’s how you make it hotter and hotter: Ya nihtap lokba. It’s hot today. Ya nihtap lokbáahoos. It’s very hot today. Ya nihtap lokbáaaahoos. It’s REALLY hot today.
