Download RS 80 Across the Mediterranean Egypt

RS 80 Across the Mediterranean : Egypt - a history, in brief
By Lauren Williamson M.A.
One of the earliest known civilizations of the ancient world—opulent in culture
and advanced in learning—once dwelled among the desert lands of Egypt.
Indeed, the Pharaonic period in Egyptian history propelled the country into
international leadership for hundreds of years. The iconic architecture of the
Great Pyramid and Great Sphinx are testaments to this era, but political and
economic pressures have prevented the country from sustaining its historic
grandeur into the present era.
A unified Egyptian nation has existed for at least five thousand years. The end
of the ancient dynasties of the Old Kingdom (around 2150 BC) led to a period
of social upheaval, followed by ancient Egypt’s ascent to global prominence.
Some scholars argue that the foundations of democracy were established
during the New Kingdom when citizens expected benevolence, mercy and
judiciousness from their rulers. The New Kingdom’s culture inspired myths
like “The Eloquent Peasant,” which outlined basic human rights and adequate
treatment of lower classes. The famous suicide of Queen Cleopatra in 30 BC
ended this legendary era, as Romans took control of the territory.
From this point, Egypt was dominated by several external powers including
the Persians. By 639 AD, Egypt was absorbed into the Muslim Empire. The
Ottoman Turks seized the lands in the 1500s, and in the late 18th century
Napoleon Bonaparte attempted to exert French influence so as to thwart
British trade interests in the East. Napoleon advocated his campaign as an
attempt to free the oppressed Muslims from the Ottoman Empire, but by 1802
a treaty relinquished Egypt back to the Ottomans. Researcher and author
Robert Pateman argues that Egypt has remained remarkably homogenous
despite these varied influences on its culture.
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Two booming problems: Population and poverty
Geological evidence suggests that the Sahara desert has expanded over time
and Egypt once had much more arable soil. Around 2150 BC, climate change
brought cooler, drier weather to the region, resulting in erratic river flooding
and trauma to the settled civilization. Periods of high floods drowned
hundreds of thousands at a time; subsequent low flooding prompted famine
and starvation.
One such famine occurred in 1202 AD, the horrifying
circumstances of which were recorded by scholar Abdel-Latif Al-Baghdadi.
Among the scenes he described were families cannibalizing loved ones to
survive and noblewomen selling themselves as slaves in hopes of escaping.
Still, Egypt’s dense population is packed around Cairo, Alexandria and the
Nile River, where the only arable land exists today. Egypt’s growing
population of more than 80 million makes it the Arab world’s most populous
country.
Egypt’s inability to grow substantial enough food supplies has
contributed to its past economic struggles and over-reliance on imports, thus
creating a sizable trade deficit. However, since the 1980s the government
has taken measurable steps to liberalize and diversify its economy.
Its
tourism, and media and service sectors have improved, though the country
remains dependent on oil exports.
Even with the recent reforms, Egypt has failed to spur its economy in a way
that increases living standards for its citizens. Cairo is believed to have one of
the largest urban slum populations in the world. The Centre for Development
Policy and Research estimates that poverty rates in rural areas are twice as
high as in the urban centres. The United Nations says that 30 percent of
Egyptians live below international poverty standards, and there are more than
28 million children without adequate housing, water, sanitation or enough
food. This situation will take a heavy toll on Egypt’s future workforce, as
impoverished students are less likely to attend or finish school, thereby
making them unskilled labourers once they reach adulthood.
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The 23 million landmines lying under the country’s soil provide additional
constraints on Egypt’s economic growth. Most of the mines were laid by Axis
and Allied powers during World War II. Egypt has sought international cooperation in their demining efforts, a task which the government alone cannot
afford. Removing the 17.5 million landmines in the El-Alamain fields would
cost approximately $20 billion. In the meantime, the landmines harm and kill
hundreds of people every year, only adding to the country’s health costs and
deterring investors, who are limited in where they can safely build businesses.
Invasions, interventions, infighting
The Suez Canal, an artificial waterway connecting the Mediterranean and Red
Sea, is a crucial revenue source that services 7.5 percent of world trade. The
canal, finished in 1869, brought in nearly $19 million profits in 2010, reminding
Egyptians of the channel’s strategic significance. Though it offers the primary
shipping route to the East, pirate attacks off the Somali coast have prompted
many businesses to opt for the longer route around southern Africa, which
has harmed Egypt’s revenue.
This profitable waterway has caused serious disputes in the past. President
Nasser’s decision to nationalize the canal led to the Suez Crisis of 1956.
Britain, France and Israel invaded Egypt to protect their trade interests,
causing an international uproar. The UN deployed its first peacekeeping force
during the event to help reopen the blocked canal, which was impeding
international transport. After economic sanctions, Britain and France
withdrew. Israeli forces eventually pulled out, but tensions between Israel and
Egypt festered, resulting in subsequent conflicts until the Camp David
Accords were signed in 1978. Egypt was condemned by other Arab states for
legitimizing the existence of Israel, but it has maintained the peace alliance.
Since the Camp David Accords, Egypt has not directly been involved in any
major wars. However, in the winter of 2008-2009, the Israeli-Hamas war in the
Gaza Strip occurred at the intersecting border with Egypt. Egypt’s public
stance on the war caused a diplomatic headache for officials. Though poised
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to be a mediator between the two nations, Egypt could not pander too much
to Israel and risk losing Arab allies, nor could it offer support to the extremist
group Hamas, lest that bolster Egyptian extremist groups.
Even now, with the Gaza War over, there are still frequent attacks around the
Gaza border and problems with weapons smuggling, which has contributed to
the recent upsurge in violence within Egypt. Israel and Egypt have been
working to capture militants and extremists, but this only addresses one facet
of the multi-layered, multi-sectarian problem of violent attacks in Egypt.
The assassination of President Anwar Al-Sadat in 1981, claimed by the
jihadist group, Tanzin Al-Jihad, is considered a commencing point for the
expansion of violent groups and increases in violent attacks during the last
two decades. Other extremist factions gained prowess during the following
years, including Gama’a Islamiya, which seized control of an area of Cairo in
1992, invoking Shari’a law. Members of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, which merged
with Al-Qaeda before the 9/11 attacks, began targeting tourists in the late
1990s as part of the movement’s focus on the “far enemy,” or Westerners.
Coptic Christians and other Christian sects are also targets of brutality.
On the political horizon
Partly responsible for the grievances of Egyptian extremist groups is the
government’s law that bans any political party with an overtly religious
agenda. Simply put, jihadist groups and others religious sects such as the
Muslim Brotherhood cannot gain political legitimacy in Egypt; they covertly run
as independent candidates in elections.
President Mubarak, who has held office since 1981 and is the longest tenured
president since Egypt gained independence, has been criticized harshly for
not taking stronger action to mitigate the violence. Rather, his authoritarianlike policies have further inflamed dissatisfied groups. After Mubarak won his
fifth term during the country’s first multi-party elections in 2005, he bore down
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harshly on opposition parties, prompting condemnation from human rights
agencies like Amnesty International.
In the run up to the November 2010 legislative elections, five thousand
candidates registered for parliamentary spots. During the 2010 campaigns,
watchdog agencies reported that Egyptian officials unjustly jailed, beat or
exiled dozens of intellectuals and journalists, despite freedom of expression
being explicitly guaranteed in the 1971 constitution. The bubbling anxieties
prompted the US to call for international elections monitors to ensure the
proceedings were carried out democratically and free of corruption. Those
requests were denied by Mubarak's administration.
This political climate does not bode well for the upcoming 2011 presidential
elections. The IMF applauds the economic reforms enacted under Mubarak’s
leadership and lists Egypt as one of the fastest reforming nations in the world.
But the country has yet to effectively solve its poverty and unemployment
issues. This feeds into the growing malcontent felt by citizens who want new
leadership.
In spite of rumours of the 82 year old's failing health, Mubarak is expected to
run for presidential re-election. However, if he steps aside, it is believed that
his son Gamal, a leader within the ruling National Democratic Party, would
assume the role. Mubarak's public stance is that he welcomes new
presidential candidates who can bring benefits to Egyptian society. But in light
of recent protests, if no clear favourite emerges during the campaign, it could
aggravate political tensions and possibly fuel another spike in violence within
Egypt.
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Key Facts
Capital: Cairo
Government: Republic
President: Muhammad Hosni Sayyid Mubarak
Prime Minister: Ahmed Nazif
Language: Arabic
Geography
Area: 1,001,450 km sq.
Bordering Countries: Libya, Sudan, Israel, Gaza Strip
Waters: Nile River, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea
Climate: Hot and dry
Terrain: Desert plateau, river valley
People
Population: 80,471,869 (CIA 2010 estimate)
Ethnicities: predominantly Egyptian, Bedouin Arabs and Nubian
Religion: 90% Muslim (Sunni), 9% Coptic Christian, 1% other
Economy
GDP: $188 billion (US Dept of State 2009)
Exports: Oil exports at 155,200 barrels/day; metal, cotton, textiles and
chemicals
Unemployment: 9.4%
Timeline
1859 Work on the Suez Canal project, an artificial waterway connecting the
Mediterranean and Red Sea, begins, opening 10 years later.
1914 Egypt becomes a British protectorate.
1922 Egypt gains independence from Britain.
1928 Hasan Al-Banna founds the Muslim Brotherhood, by now the largest and
oldest political Islamist group.
1952 During the “July 23rd Revolution” the nation is declared a republic.
1956 President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, prompting
the Suez Crisis.
1967 Israel surprise attacks Egypt, prompting the Six Day War. Egypt is
defeated; Israel takes control of the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula.
1973 Egypt and Syria attack Israel to reclaim lands lost in the Six Day War.
1978 The Camp David Accords are signed, preserving peace between Egypt
and Israel. Egypt is excluded from the Arab League.
1981 President Anwar Al-Sadat is assassinated along with six other
diplomats. The murders are attributed to a jihadist group.
1989 Egypt is permitted to rejoin the Arab League.
1999 Egypt asks former Allied and Axis countries to provide financial and
technological support to de-mine Egypt’s 23 million landmines.
2005 A May referendum paves the way for the country’s first direct multi-party
presidential election. Incumbent Hosni Mubarak wins a fifth consecutive sixyear term. The election result is highly contested.
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2010 Parliamentary elections in November prompt allegations of government
corruption and election fraud. US calls for international election monitors are
denied.
2011 A week of street riots at the end of January calling for change including
the resignation of President Mubarak
This is part of a series of papers about the EU’s southern neighbours across
the Mediterranean Sea. Previously :
Regional study RS 50F
Across the Mediterranean - North African dynamics: Relations between Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, the
European Union and other major powers - January 2008
view
Regional study RS 50E
Across the Mediterranean : Tunisia – market analysis (Nov 2007)
view
Regional study RS 50D
Across the Mediterranean: Algeria – Procurement and the drive to secure energy (Nov 2007)
view
Regional Study RS 50C
Across the Mediterranean : Egypt- Procurement and the North African market (Nov 2007)
view
Regional study RS 50B
Across the Mediterranean : Defence procurement and market access in Libya (Nov 2007)
view
Regional study RS 50A
Across the Mediterranean - Morocco: market access and procurement (Nov 2007)
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January 2011
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