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GLOSSARY UNIT 4 MEMORY Acronym Acrostic Alzheimer’s Disease Anterograde Amnesia Chunking Consolidation Consolidation Theory Context Cues Cue-dependent forgetting Cued recall Decay theory Declarative memory Echoic memory Eidetic imagery Eidetic memory Elaborative rehearsal Encoding Episodic memory Forgetting Forgetting curve Iconic memory Interference theory Keyword method Level of processing Long term memory (LTM) Maintenance rehearsal Memory Method of loci Method of savings Mnemonic device Motivated forgetting Narrative chaining Organic amnesia Peg word method Photographic memory Primacy effect Proactive interference mnemonic device-pronounceable abbreviation of phrase or term mnemonic device-constructing phrases from first letters of material organic disease involving brain cell degeneration and consequent deterioration of mental abilities, personal skills and behaviour loss of the ability to form or retrieve memories for events that occur after an injury or trauma the grouping of pieces of information into larger units, that can be remembered as single units. It expands the capacity of STM the process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain proposes that transfer of info. from STM to LTM requires time for stabilisation in order to be stored permanently remembering information utilising the setting in which it occurred forgetting occurring due to the failure of retrieval cues using an aid or hint to retrieve information from memory forgetting occurs because time passes (and the memory trace slowly fades) the part of LTM that contains factual information auditory sensory memory (sounds linger ( ~2-3s) in it like an echo) retaining a visual image long enough to use it as a source of information “photographic memory”-the ability to recall scenes as if the event were actually still occurring rehearsal that links new information with existing memories and knowledge changing information into a form that allows it to be stored in memory or manipulated in thought a subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences, linking them with specific times and places the inability to retrieve previously stored information graph showing the characteristic pattern of information loss that occurs visual sensory memory (duration only about 0.5s) suggests that in LTM, forgetting is due to other memories (particularly similar memories) impairing the retrieval of what is being recalled a mnemonic device, using a familiar word or image to link two items memory theory suggesting that the depth of information processing at encoding, determines how well it is stored memory system for relatively permanent, theoretically limitless storage of meaningful information mental repetition of information to hold it in STM (for >20s) an active, information-processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information mnemonic device using a well-learned location sequence as memory cues measure of memory based on relearning previously-memorised material technique for improving memory e.g. word associations, method of loci from Freud. The blocking or hiding of a memory from consciousness because it is too painful to remember Also called repression mnemonic device involving the connection of unrelated items into a story amnesia caused by damage to the brain from e.g. disease, stroke, injury mnemonic device involving visualisation, & a rhyme with “mental pegs” everyday term for eidetic memory serial position effect of superior recall for items at the beginning of a list old memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories Procedural memory Recall Recency effect Recognition Redintegration Relearning Retrieval Retrieval cue Retrieval failure theory Retroactive interference Retrograde amnesia Semantic memory Semantic network theory Sensory memory Sensory register Serial position effect Short term memory (STM) State-dependent cues Storage Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon part of LTM made up of learned skills and conditioned responses measure of memory where memorised information is reproduced with the fewest possible cues serial position effect of superior recall for items at the end of a list measure of memory involving correct identification of previously learned material reconstruction of an entire complex memory after remembering only a part learning again material learnt previously. A measure of the memory of prior learning (see also method of savings) the recovery of stored information from memory stimulus/signal that can begin an information recovery process from LTM forgetting is due to lack of cues to retrieve information from memory. Also called cue dependent forgetting new information interferes with the ability to remember old information loss of memory for events before a head injury or trauma subpart of declarative memory recording impersonal information we have about the world e.g. famous people says LTM is organised into networks of interconnected (linked) concepts first stage of memory–holds original sensory form of stimuli for ~2s subsystem of sensory memory for temporary storage of all incoming data recall of early & late items in serial lists is better than for middle items limited capacity memory system– data is rapidly lost unless rehearsed retrieval cue derived from an individual’s physiological or psychological state at the time of memory formation the retention of information in memory over time the experience of feeling that a memory is available, while being unable to retrieve it LEARNING Aversive stimulus Aversive conditioning Avoidance conditioning Behaviour modification Classical conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response(CR) Continuous reinforcement Critical period Discrimination Escape conditioning Extinction Fixed action pattern (FAP) Fixed interval schedule Fixed ratio schedule Generalisation Insight Instinct Instrumental conditioning Latent learning Learned helplessness Learning Learning set Maturation Modelling Negative reinforcer Neutral Stimulus Observational learning Operant conditioning Partial reinforcement Phobia Plateau Positive reinforcer Primary reinforcers Punishment Reflex action Reinforcement any stimulus that produces discomfort or displeasure a therapeutic procedure used to discourage undesirable learned behaviours, by establishing an unpleasant response to the object or situation that produces the undesirable behaviour a type of operant conditioning (based on negative reinforcement) where making a particular response delays or prevents the onset of a painful or unpleasant stimulus the application of operant conditioning principles to modify human behaviour a basic form of learning based on the repetitive association of stimuli. Existing reflex responses come to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus due to its repetitive pairing with the stimulus that normally elicits the response the stimulus (initially neutral) which through association with the UCS, eventually elicits the CR a behaviour identical to the UR, but which is caused by the CS after conditioning has taken place a correct response is reinforced every time it occurs during development, a period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences responding to a conditioned stimulus, but not to similar stimuli learning to make a response in order to end an aversive (unpleasant or painful) stimulus. Linked to negative reinforcement a gradual decrease in the frequency of a non-reinforced response an instinctive or species-specific behaviour, found in all species’ members reinforcement occurs after a fixed period of time has elapsed a set number of responses must be made in order to receive a reinforcer transfer of a learned response from one stimulus situation to similar others sudden realisation of something e.g. solution to a problem inborn predisposition to behave in a certain way (same as FAP) Thorndike’s term for the learned association between behaviour and its consequences occurs without any direct reinforcement and remains unexpressed until reinforcement is offered a learned state of passivity and inaction in the face of aversive stimuli a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience improvement in learning ability due to similar learning experiences orderly growth and development of body and nervous system observational learning, where information is imparted by example stimulus which when removed, strengthens a particular response over time stimulus that initially doesn’t elicit CR but can be conditioned to do so learning by observing the actions and their consequences of another person learning based on the consequences of responding a pattern in which only a portion of responses are reinforced intense, persistent, irrational fear of an object or situation a period of little or no apparent progress in learning occurs when a response is followed with a reward or other positive event unlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs when a response is followed by a negative consequence that decreases the likelihood of recurrence of that response (also see response cost) automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus any event which strengthens a particular response over time Respondent conditioning Response cost Schedule of reinforcement Secondary reinforcer Shaping Species-specific behaviour Spontaneous recovery Stimulus Stimulus discrimination Stimulus generalisation Systematic desensitisation Taste aversion Token economy Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Variable-interval schedule Variable-ratio schedule Vicarious conditioning Vicarious punishment Vicarious reinforcement classical conditioning punishment that occurs by the removal of a positive reinforcer rule or plan for determining which responses will be reinforced stimulus that becomes a reinforcer by association with a primary reinforcer in operant conditioning–reinforcing responses that successively approximate the desired response behaviour patterns inherited by every individual member of a species the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction any physical energy that an organism responds to ability to distinguish between similar , but different stimuli responding to similar (not identical) stimuli to a conditioned stimulus therapy attempting to replace fear, anxiety or aversion with a relaxation response by conditioning procedures conditioned physical response to certain foods, after association with illness or discomfort operant conditioning procedure where desirable behaviours are reinforced with tokens which are exchangeable for goods, services, etc an innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus stimulus which reliably produces a particular naturally occurring response reinforcer given for the first response made after a varied amount of time– interval is an average, but reinforcement is at variable, unpredictable times reinforcer given after a fluctuating, but average number of responses conditioning brought about by observing another person’s behavioural consequences likelihood of behaviour decreases after seeing model’s behaviour punished likelihood of behaviour increases after seeing model’s behaviour reinforced RESEARCH METHODS Conclusion Confidentiality Confounding variable Control (group/condition) Correlation Data Dependent variable (DV) Double-blind study Empirical evidence Experiment Experimental group Experimenter effect Extraneous variable Generalisation Hawthorne effect Hypothesis Independent variable (IV) Independent-groups design Inferential statistics Matched-participants design Observation Operationalisation (or operational hypothesis) p<0.05 Placebo Placebo effect Population Random assignment Random sampling Repeated-measures design final decision about what the results obtained from an investigation mean privacy of participants in an experiment an uncontrolled experimental variable whose effects on the dependent variable might mistakenly be attributed to the independent variable where subjects in an experiment are exposed to all conditions except the independent variable statistical measure of the relationship between two variables; expressed as a number between –1.0 and 1.0 (indicating its direction and strength) information collected by scientists when conducting research the condition or behaviour in an experiment that reflects the effects of the independent variable. What is measured in the experiment. neither experimenter nor subjects know which subjects are in the experimental group facts or information gained by direct experience or observation data collection method used to test causal relationships between variables specified in an hypothesis the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the IV unintended influence of the experimenter on the subjects’ behaviour and consequently on the DV uncontrolled experimental variable randomly influencing results decision about how widely the findings of a study can be applied proposition that subjects, knowing they are in experimental group, may improve through this knowledge, rather than due to the IV a tentative (guess) and testable prediction (based on theory or prior knowledge) of the relationship between variables the condition in an experiment, manipulated by the experimenter, as a possible cause of behavioural change experimental design where, before the experiment, subjects are randomly allocated to two separate (independent) groups statistics used to assess whether, and with what probability, sample results can be applied to the population experimental design where pairs of subjects, similar in characteristic(s) that might influence the results, are randomly allocated; one to each group research method involving careful watching and recording of behaviour defining and describing a behaviour in terms of the specific operations or objective procedures, used to measure it Results obtained in an experiment were likely to occur by chance less often than 5 times in 100 a substance that resembles a drug but has no chemical effect behavioural changes due to expectations that a procedure will have an effect, rather than due to the procedure itself the larger group from which a sample is drawn assigning subjects so that each has an equal chance of selection to experimental and control groups procedure ensuring that each member of the population under research is equally likely to be selected as a subject experimental design which uses the same participants in both the control Sample Sampling Scatter diagram Scientific method Single-blind study Statistical significance Stratified sampling Subject Variable Voluntary participation Withdrawal rights and experimental group(s) subset or portion of a population of interest method of selecting subjects for a study graph used to plot data for correlation analysis testing the truth of a proposition by careful measurement & observation subjects are unaware of which experimental group they are assigned to experimental results that would rarely occur by chance alone (e.g. p< .05) population is divided into distinct groups (strata) & samples are taken from each stratum, usually in the same proportions as in the population the participant in an experiment any condition that changes, or can be made to change the right of subjects to be free of pressure to participate in research the right of subjects to withdraw from an experiment at any time