Download Unit 4 Glossary

GLOSSARY UNIT 4
MEMORY
Acronym
Acrostic
Alzheimer’s Disease
Anterograde Amnesia
Chunking
Consolidation
Consolidation Theory
Context Cues
Cue-dependent forgetting
Cued recall
Decay theory
Declarative memory
Echoic memory
Eidetic imagery
Eidetic memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Encoding
Episodic memory
Forgetting
Forgetting curve
Iconic memory
Interference theory
Keyword method
Level of processing
Long term memory (LTM)
Maintenance rehearsal
Memory
Method of loci
Method of savings
Mnemonic device
Motivated forgetting
Narrative chaining
Organic amnesia
Peg word method
Photographic memory
Primacy effect
Proactive interference
mnemonic device-pronounceable abbreviation of phrase or term
mnemonic device-constructing phrases from first letters of material
organic disease involving brain cell degeneration and consequent
deterioration of mental abilities, personal skills and behaviour
loss of the ability to form or retrieve memories for events that occur after an
injury or trauma
the grouping of pieces of information into larger units, that can be
remembered as single units. It expands the capacity of STM
the process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain
proposes that transfer of info. from STM to LTM requires time for
stabilisation in order to be stored permanently
remembering information utilising the setting in which it occurred
forgetting occurring due to the failure of retrieval cues
using an aid or hint to retrieve information from memory
forgetting occurs because time passes (and the memory trace slowly fades)
the part of LTM that contains factual information
auditory sensory memory (sounds linger ( ~2-3s) in it like an echo)
retaining a visual image long enough to use it as a source of information
“photographic memory”-the ability to recall scenes as if the event were
actually still occurring
rehearsal that links new information with existing memories and knowledge
changing information into a form that allows it to be stored in memory or
manipulated in thought
a subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences, linking
them with specific times and places
the inability to retrieve previously stored information
graph showing the characteristic pattern of information loss that occurs
visual sensory memory (duration only about 0.5s)
suggests that in LTM, forgetting is due to other memories (particularly
similar memories) impairing the retrieval of what is being recalled
a mnemonic device, using a familiar word or image to link two items
memory theory suggesting that the depth of information processing at
encoding, determines how well it is stored
memory system for relatively permanent, theoretically limitless storage of
meaningful information
mental repetition of information to hold it in STM (for >20s)
an active, information-processing system that receives, organises, stores and
recovers information
mnemonic device using a well-learned location sequence as memory cues
measure of memory based on relearning previously-memorised material
technique for improving memory e.g. word associations, method of loci
from Freud. The blocking or hiding of a memory from consciousness
because it is too painful to remember Also called repression
mnemonic device involving the connection of unrelated items into a story
amnesia caused by damage to the brain from e.g. disease, stroke, injury
mnemonic device involving visualisation, & a rhyme with “mental pegs”
everyday term for eidetic memory
serial position effect of superior recall for items at the beginning of a list
old memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
Procedural memory
Recall
Recency effect
Recognition
Redintegration
Relearning
Retrieval
Retrieval cue
Retrieval failure theory
Retroactive interference
Retrograde amnesia
Semantic memory
Semantic network theory
Sensory memory
Sensory register
Serial position effect
Short term memory (STM)
State-dependent cues
Storage
Tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon
part of LTM made up of learned skills and conditioned responses
measure of memory where memorised information is reproduced with the
fewest possible cues
serial position effect of superior recall for items at the end of a list
measure of memory involving correct identification of previously learned
material
reconstruction of an entire complex memory after remembering only a part
learning again material learnt previously. A measure of the memory of prior
learning (see also method of savings)
the recovery of stored information from memory
stimulus/signal that can begin an information recovery process from LTM
forgetting is due to lack of cues to retrieve information from memory. Also
called cue dependent forgetting
new information interferes with the ability to remember old information
loss of memory for events before a head injury or trauma
subpart of declarative memory recording impersonal information we have
about the world e.g. famous people
says LTM is organised into networks of interconnected (linked) concepts
first stage of memory–holds original sensory form of stimuli for ~2s
subsystem of sensory memory for temporary storage of all incoming data
recall of early & late items in serial lists is better than for middle items
limited capacity memory system– data is rapidly lost unless rehearsed
retrieval cue derived from an individual’s physiological or psychological
state at the time of memory formation
the retention of information in memory over time
the experience of feeling that a memory is available, while being unable to
retrieve it
LEARNING
Aversive stimulus
Aversive conditioning
Avoidance conditioning
Behaviour modification
Classical conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response(CR)
Continuous reinforcement
Critical period
Discrimination
Escape conditioning
Extinction
Fixed action pattern (FAP)
Fixed interval schedule
Fixed ratio schedule
Generalisation
Insight
Instinct
Instrumental conditioning
Latent learning
Learned helplessness
Learning
Learning set
Maturation
Modelling
Negative reinforcer
Neutral Stimulus
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
Partial reinforcement
Phobia
Plateau
Positive reinforcer
Primary reinforcers
Punishment
Reflex action
Reinforcement
any stimulus that produces discomfort or displeasure
a therapeutic procedure used to discourage undesirable learned behaviours,
by establishing an unpleasant response to the object or situation that
produces the undesirable behaviour
a type of operant conditioning (based on negative reinforcement) where
making a particular response delays or prevents the onset of a painful or
unpleasant stimulus
the application of operant conditioning principles to modify human
behaviour
a basic form of learning based on the repetitive association of stimuli.
Existing reflex responses come to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus due
to its repetitive pairing with the stimulus that normally elicits the response
the stimulus (initially neutral) which through association with the UCS,
eventually elicits the CR
a behaviour identical to the UR, but which is caused by the CS after
conditioning has taken place
a correct response is reinforced every time it occurs
during development, a period of increased sensitivity to environmental
influences
responding to a conditioned stimulus, but not to similar stimuli
learning to make a response in order to end an aversive (unpleasant or
painful) stimulus. Linked to negative reinforcement
a gradual decrease in the frequency of a non-reinforced response
an instinctive or species-specific behaviour, found in all species’ members
reinforcement occurs after a fixed period of time has elapsed
a set number of responses must be made in order to receive a reinforcer
transfer of a learned response from one stimulus situation to similar others
sudden realisation of something e.g. solution to a problem
inborn predisposition to behave in a certain way (same as FAP)
Thorndike’s term for the learned association between behaviour and its
consequences
occurs without any direct reinforcement and remains unexpressed until
reinforcement is offered
a learned state of passivity and inaction in the face of aversive stimuli
a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience
improvement in learning ability due to similar learning experiences
orderly growth and development of body and nervous system
observational learning, where information is imparted by example
stimulus which when removed, strengthens a particular response over time
stimulus that initially doesn’t elicit CR but can be conditioned to do so
learning by observing the actions and their consequences of another person
learning based on the consequences of responding
a pattern in which only a portion of responses are reinforced
intense, persistent, irrational fear of an object or situation
a period of little or no apparent progress in learning
occurs when a response is followed with a reward or other positive event
unlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs
when a response is followed by a negative consequence that decreases the
likelihood of recurrence of that response (also see response cost)
automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus
any event which strengthens a particular response over time
Respondent conditioning
Response cost
Schedule of reinforcement
Secondary reinforcer
Shaping
Species-specific behaviour
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus
Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus generalisation
Systematic desensitisation
Taste aversion
Token economy
Unconditioned response
(UCR)
Unconditioned stimulus
(UCS)
Variable-interval schedule
Variable-ratio schedule
Vicarious conditioning
Vicarious punishment
Vicarious reinforcement
classical conditioning
punishment that occurs by the removal of a positive reinforcer
rule or plan for determining which responses will be reinforced
stimulus that becomes a reinforcer by association with a primary reinforcer
in operant conditioning–reinforcing responses that successively approximate
the desired response
behaviour patterns inherited by every individual member of a species
the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
any physical energy that an organism responds to
ability to distinguish between similar , but different stimuli
responding to similar (not identical) stimuli to a conditioned stimulus
therapy attempting to replace fear, anxiety or aversion with a relaxation
response by conditioning procedures
conditioned physical response to certain foods, after association with illness
or discomfort
operant conditioning procedure where desirable behaviours are reinforced
with tokens which are exchangeable for goods, services, etc
an innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
stimulus which reliably produces a particular naturally occurring response
reinforcer given for the first response made after a varied amount of time–
interval is an average, but reinforcement is at variable, unpredictable times
reinforcer given after a fluctuating, but average number of responses
conditioning brought about by observing another person’s behavioural
consequences
likelihood of behaviour decreases after seeing model’s behaviour punished
likelihood of behaviour increases after seeing model’s behaviour reinforced
RESEARCH METHODS
Conclusion
Confidentiality
Confounding variable
Control (group/condition)
Correlation
Data
Dependent variable (DV)
Double-blind study
Empirical evidence
Experiment
Experimental group
Experimenter effect
Extraneous variable
Generalisation
Hawthorne effect
Hypothesis
Independent variable (IV)
Independent-groups design
Inferential statistics
Matched-participants design
Observation
Operationalisation (or
operational hypothesis)
p<0.05
Placebo
Placebo effect
Population
Random assignment
Random sampling
Repeated-measures design
final decision about what the results obtained from an investigation mean
privacy of participants in an experiment
an uncontrolled experimental variable whose effects on the dependent
variable might mistakenly be attributed to the independent variable
where subjects in an experiment are exposed to all conditions except the
independent variable
statistical measure of the relationship between two variables; expressed as a
number between –1.0 and 1.0 (indicating its direction and strength)
information collected by scientists when conducting research
the condition or behaviour in an experiment that reflects the effects of the
independent variable. What is measured in the experiment.
neither experimenter nor subjects know which subjects are in the
experimental group
facts or information gained by direct experience or observation
data collection method used to test causal relationships between variables
specified in an hypothesis
the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the IV
unintended influence of the experimenter on the subjects’ behaviour and
consequently on the DV
uncontrolled experimental variable randomly influencing results
decision about how widely the findings of a study can be applied
proposition that subjects, knowing they are in experimental group, may
improve through this knowledge, rather than due to the IV
a tentative (guess) and testable prediction (based on theory or prior
knowledge) of the relationship between variables
the condition in an experiment, manipulated by the experimenter, as a
possible cause of behavioural change
experimental design where, before the experiment, subjects are randomly
allocated to two separate (independent) groups
statistics used to assess whether, and with what probability, sample results
can be applied to the population
experimental design where pairs of subjects, similar in characteristic(s) that
might influence the results, are randomly allocated; one to each group
research method involving careful watching and recording of behaviour
defining and describing a behaviour in terms of the specific operations or
objective procedures, used to measure it
Results obtained in an experiment were likely to occur by chance less often
than 5 times in 100
a substance that resembles a drug but has no chemical effect
behavioural changes due to expectations that a procedure will have an
effect, rather than due to the procedure itself
the larger group from which a sample is drawn
assigning subjects so that each has an equal chance of selection to
experimental and control groups
procedure ensuring that each member of the population under research is
equally likely to be selected as a subject
experimental design which uses the same participants in both the control
Sample
Sampling
Scatter diagram
Scientific method
Single-blind study
Statistical significance
Stratified sampling
Subject
Variable
Voluntary participation
Withdrawal rights
and experimental group(s)
subset or portion of a population of interest
method of selecting subjects for a study
graph used to plot data for correlation analysis
testing the truth of a proposition by careful measurement & observation
subjects are unaware of which experimental group they are assigned to
experimental results that would rarely occur by chance alone (e.g. p< .05)
population is divided into distinct groups (strata) & samples are taken from
each stratum, usually in the same proportions as in the population
the participant in an experiment
any condition that changes, or can be made to change
the right of subjects to be free of pressure to participate in research
the right of subjects to withdraw from an experiment at any time