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4 The Tissue Level of Organization PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College—North Harris © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to Tissues • Learning Outcomes • 4-1 Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and describe their roles. • 4-2 Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissue. • 4-3 Describe the relationship between form and function for each type of epithelium. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to Tissues • Learning Outcomes • 4-4 Compare the structures and functions of the various types of connective tissues. • 4-5 Describe how cartilage and bone function as a supporting connective tissue. • 4-6 Explain how epithelial and connective tissues combine to form four types of tissue membranes, and specify the functions of each. • 4-7 Describe how connective tissue establishes the framework of the body. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to Tissues • Learning Outcomes • 4-8 Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the special structural features of each type. • 4-9 Discuss the basic structure and role of neural tissue • 4-10 Describe how injuries affect the tissues of the body. • 4-11 Describe how aging affects the tissues of the body. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to Tissues • Tissues • Structures with discrete structural and functional properties • Tissues in combination form organs, such as the heart or liver • Organs can be grouped into 11 organ systems © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-1 Four Types of Tissue • Tissue • Are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited functions • Four types of tissue 1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue 3. Muscle tissue 4. Neural tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-1 Four Types of Tissue • Epithelial Tissue • Covers exposed surfaces • Lines internal passageways • Forms glands • Connective Tissue • Fills internal spaces • Supports other tissues • Transports materials • Stores energy © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-1 Four Types of Tissue • Muscle Tissue • Specialized for contraction • Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs • Neural Tissue • Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Epithelia • Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces • Glands • Structures that produce secretions © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Characteristics of Epithelia • Cellularity (cell junctions) • Polarity (apical and basal surfaces) • Attachment (basement membrane or basal lamina) • Avascularity • Regeneration © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells Cilia Microvilli Apical surface Golgi apparatus Nucleus Mitochondria Basement membrane Basolateral surfaces © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Functions of Epithelial Tissue 1. Provide Physical Protection 2. Control Permeability 3. Provide Sensation 4. Produce Specialized Secretions (glandular epithelium) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Specializations of Epithelial Cells 1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) 2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) 3. Produce secretions (protection and messengers) • Polarity 1. Apical surfaces • Microvilli increase absorption or secretion • Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid 2. Basolateral surfaces © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia 1. Intercellular connections 2. Attachment to the basement membrane 3. Epithelial maintenance and repair © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Intercellular Connections • Support and communication • CAMs (cell adhesion molecules) • Transmembrane proteins • Intercellular cement • Proteoglycans • Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid) • Glycosaminoglycans © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Intercellular Connections • Cell junctions • Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material 1. Tight junctions 2. Gap junctions 3. Desmosomes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Tight Junctions • Between two plasma membranes • Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web • Prevents passage of water and solutes • Isolates wastes in the lumen © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Gap Junctions • Allow rapid communication • Are held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons) • Allow ions to pass • Coordinate contractions in heart muscle © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Desmosomes • CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular cement • Spot desmosomes • Tie cells together • Allow bending and twisting • Hemidesmosomes • Attach cells to the basal lamina © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Attachment to the Basement Membrane • Clear layer (lamina lucida) • Thin layer • Secreted by epithelia • Barrier to proteins • Dense layer (lamina densa) • Thick fibers • Produced by connective tissue • Strength and filtration © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-2 Cell Junctions Interlocking junctional proteins Tight junction Tight junction Adhesion belt Terminal web Spot desmosome Adhesion belt Gap junctions Hemidesmosome Embedded proteins (connexons) Clear layer Dense layer Intermediate filaments Basement membrane Dense area Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) Proteoglycans © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-2a Cell Junctions Tight junction Adhesion belt Terminal web Spot desmosome Gap junctions Hemidesmosome This is a diagrammatic view of an epithelial cell, showing the major types of intercellular connections. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-2b Cell Junctions Interlocking junctional proteins Tight junction Terminal web Adhesion belt A tight junction is formed by the fusion of the outer layers of two plasma membranes. Tight junctions prevent the diffusion of fluids and solutes between the cells. A continuous adhesion belt lies deep to the tight junction. This belt is tied to the microfilaments of the terminal web. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-2c Cell Junctions Embedded proteins (connexons) Gap junctions permit the free diffusion of ions and small molecules between two cells. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-2d Cell Junctions Intermediate filaments Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) Dense area Proteoglycans A spot desmosome ties adjacent cells together. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-2e Cell Junctions Clear layer Dense layer Hemidesmosomes attach a cell to extracellular structures, such as the protein fibers in the basement membrane. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Basement membrane 4-2 Epithelial Tissue • Epithelial Maintenance and Repair • Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) • Near basement membrane © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Singular = Epithelium; Plural = Epithelia • Classes of Epithelia 1. Based on shape • Squamous epithelia — thin and flat • Cuboidal epithelia — square shaped • Columnar epithelia — tall, slender rectangles 2. Based on layers • Simple epithelium — single layer of cells • Stratified epithelium — several layers of cells © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelia © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelia © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Squamous Epithelia • Simple squamous epithelium • Absorption and diffusion • Mesothelium • Lines body cavities • Endothelium • Lines heart and blood vessels © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-3a Squamous Epithelia Simple Squamous Epithelium LOCATIONS: Mesothelia lining ventral body cavities; endothelia lining heart and blood vessels; portions of kidney tubules (thin sections of nephron loops); inner lining of cornea; alveoli of lungs FUNCTIONS: Reduces friction; controls vessel permeability; performs absorption and secretion Cytoplasm Nucleus Connective tissue Lining of peritoneal cavity © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 238 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Squamous Epithelia • Stratified squamous epithelium • Protects against attacks • Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-3b Squamous Epithelia Stratified Squamous Epithelium LOCATIONS: Surface of skin; lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina FUNCTIONS: Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack Squamous superficial cells Stem cells Basement membrane Connective tissue Surface of tongue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 310 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Cuboidal Epithelia • Simple cuboidal epithelium • Secretion and absorption • Stratified cuboidal epithelia • Sweat ducts and mammary ducts © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-4a Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Simple Cuboidal Epithelium LOCATIONS: Glands; ducts; portions of kidney tubules; thyroid gland Connective tissue FUNCTIONS: Limited protection, secretion, absorption Nucleus Cuboidal cells Basement membrane Kidney tubule © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 650 Figure 4-4b Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium LOCATIONS: Lining of some ducts (rare) FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, absorption Lumen of duct Stratified cuboidal cells Basement membrane Nuclei Connective tissue Sweat gland duct © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 500 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Transitional Epithelium • Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous shape without damage • Appearance changes as stretching occurs • Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-4c Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Transitional Epithelium LOCATIONS: Urinary bladder; renal pelvis; ureters FUNCTIONS: Permits expansion and recoil after stretching Epithelium (relaxed) Basement membrane Empty bladder Connective tissue and smooth muscle layers LM × 400 Epithelium (stretched) Full bladder Urinary bladder © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Basement membrane Connective tissue and smooth muscle layers LM × 400 LM × 400 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Columnar Epithelia • Simple columnar epithelium • Absorption and secretion • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium • Cilia movement • Stratified columnar epithelium • Protection © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-5a Columnar Epithelia Simple Columnar Epithelium LOCATIONS: Lining of stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, absorption Microvilli Cytoplasm Nucleus Intestinal lining © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Basement membrane Loose connective tissue LM × 350 Figure 4-5b Columnar Epithelia Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium LOCATIONS: Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi; portions of male reproductive tract Cilia Cytoplasm FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia Nuclei Basement membrane Trachea © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Loose connective tissue LM × 350 Figure 4-5c Columnar Epithelia Stratified Columnar Epithelium LOCATIONS: Small areas of the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, mammary glands, salivary gland ducts, and urethra FUNCTION: Protection Lumen Loose connective tissue Deeper basal cells Superficial columnar cells Lumen Cytoplasm Nuclei Salivary gland duct © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Basement membrane LM × 175 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Glandular Epithelia • Endocrine glands • Release hormones • Into interstitial fluid • No ducts • Exocrine glands • Produce secretions • Onto epithelial surfaces • Through ducts © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Glandular Epithelia • Modes of Secretion 1. Merocrine secretion 2. Apocrine secretion 3. Holocrine secretion © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Merocrine Secretion • Produced in Golgi apparatus • Released by vesicles (exocytosis) • For example, sweat glands • Apocrine Secretion • Produced in Golgi apparatus • Released by shedding cytoplasm • For example, mammary glands © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Holocrine Secretion • Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells • Gland cells replaced by stem cells • For example, sebaceous glands © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-6 Modes of Glandular Secretion Secretory vesicle Golgi apparatus Nucleus TEM × 3039 Salivary gland Mammary gland Breaks down Golgi apparatus Secretion Regrowth Hair Sebaceous gland Cells burst, releasing cytoplasmic contents Hair follicle Cells produce secretion, increasing in size Cell division replaces lost cells Stem cell © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-6a Modes of Glandular Secretion Secretory vesicle Golgi apparatus Salivary gland Nucleus Mammary gland TEM × 3039 Merocrine. In merocrine secretion, secretory vesicles are discharged at the apical surface of the gland cell by exocytosis. Hair Sebaceous gland Hair follicle © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-6b Modes of Glandular Secretion Salivary gland Mammary gland Breaks down Golgi apparatus Secretion Hair Sebaceous gland Hair follicle © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Regrowth Apocrine. Apocrine secretion involves the loss of apical cytoplasm. Inclusions, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components are shed in the process. The gland cell then undergoes growth and repair before it releases additional secretions. Figure 4-6c Modes of Glandular Secretion Salivary gland Cells burst, releasing cytoplasmic contents Mammary gland Cells produce secretion, increasing in size Cell division replaces lost cells Stem cell Hair Sebaceous gland Hair follicle © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Holocrine. Holocrine secretion occurs as superficial gland cells burst. Continued secretion involves the replacement of these cells through the mitotic division of underlying stem cells. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Glandular Epithelia • Types of Secretions • Serous glands • Watery secretions • Mucous glands • Secrete mucins • Mixed exocrine glands • Both serous and mucous © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Glandular Epithelia • Gland Structure • Unicellular glands • Mucous (goblet) cells are the only unicellular exocrine glands • Scattered among epithelia • For example, in intestinal lining © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-3 Classification of Epithelia • Gland Structure • Multicellular glands 1. Structure of the duct • Simple (undivided) • Compound (divided) 2. Shape of secretory portion of the gland • Tubular (tube shaped) • Alveolar or acinar (blind pockets) 3. Relationship between ducts and glandular areas • Branched (several secretory areas sharing one duct) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-7 A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands SIMPLE GLANDS Duct Gland cells SIMPLE TUBULAR Examples: • Intestinal glands SIMPLE COILED TUBULAR Examples: • Merocrine sweat glands SIMPLE ALVEOLAR (ACINAR) Examples: • Not found in adult; a stage in development of simple branched glands © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. SIMPLE BRANCHED TUBULAR Examples: • Gastric glands • Mucous glands of esophagus, tongue, duodenum SIMPLE BRANCHED ALVEOLAR Examples: • Sebaceous (oil) glands Figure 4-7 A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands COMPOUND GLANDS COMPOUND TUBULAR Examples: • Mucous glands (in mouth) • Bulbo-urethral glands (in male reproductive system) • Testes (seminiferous tubules) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. COMPOUND ALVEOLAR (ACINAR) Examples: • Mammary glands COMPOUND TUBULOALVEOLAR Examples: • Salivary glands • Glands of respiratory passages • Pancreas 4-4 Connective Tissue • Characteristics of Connective Tissue 1. Specialized cells 2. Solid extracellular protein fibers 3. Fluid extracellular ground substance • The Extracellular Components of Connective Tissue (Fibers and Ground Substance) • Make up the matrix • Majority of tissue volume • Determines specialized function © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Functions of Connective Tissue • Establishing a structural framework for the body • Transporting fluids and dissolved materials • Protecting delicate organs • Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue • Storing energy reserves, especially in the form of triglycerides • Defending the body from invading microorganisms © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Classification of Connective Tissues 1. Connective tissue proper • Connect and protect 2. Fluid connective tissues • Transport 3. Supporting connective tissues • Structural strength © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Categories of Connective Tissue Proper • Loose connective tissue • More ground substance, fewer fibers • For example, fat (adipose tissue) • Dense connective tissue • More fibers, less ground substance • For example, tendons © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue Connective Tissue Proper Cell Populations • Fibroblasts • Mast cells • Fibrocytes • Lymphocytes • Adipocytes • Microphages • Mesenchymal cells • Melanocytes • Macrophages © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Fibroblasts • The most abundant cell type • Found in all connective tissue proper • Secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement) • Fibrocytes • The second most abundant cell type • Found in all connective tissue proper • Maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Adipocytes • Fat cells • Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet • Mesenchymal Cells • Stem cells that respond to injury or infection • Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Macrophages • Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system • Eat pathogens and damaged cells • Fixed macrophages stay in tissue • Free macrophages migrate © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Mast Cells • Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection • Release histamine and heparin • Basophils are leukocytes (white blood cells) that also contain histamine and heparin © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Lymphocytes • Specialized immune cells in lymphatic (lymphoid) system • For example, lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells (plasmocytes) that produce antibodies © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Microphages • Phagocytic blood cells • Respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells • For example, neutrophils and eosinophils • Melanocytes • Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Connective Tissue Fibers 1. Collagen fibers 2. Reticular fibers 3. Elastic fibers © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Collagen Fibers • Most common fibers in connective tissue proper • Long, straight, and unbranched • Strong and flexible • Resist force in one direction • For example, tendons and ligaments © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Reticular Fibers • Network of interwoven fibers (stroma) • Strong and flexible • Resist force in many directions • Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and structures • For example, sheaths around organs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Elastic Fibers • Contain elastin • Branched and wavy • Return to original length after stretching • For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Ground Substance • Is clear, colorless, and viscous • Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-8 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper Reticular fibers Melanocyte Fixed macrophage Plasma cell Mast cell Elastic fibers Free macrophage Collagen fibers Blood in vessel Fibroblast Adipocytes (fat cells) Mesenchymal cell Ground substance © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphocyte Figure 4-8 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper Elastic fibers Collagen fibers Fibroblast Free macrophage Connective tissue proper © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 502 4-4 Connective Tissue • Embryonic Connective Tissues • Are not found in adults • Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells) • The first connective tissue in embryos • Mucous connective tissue • Loose embryonic connective tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-9a Connective Tissues in Embryos Mesenchymal cells Mesenchyme LM × 136 This is the first connective tissue to appear in an embryo. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-9b Connective Tissues in Embryos Mesenchymal cells Blood vessel Mucous connective tissue (Wharton’s jelly) LM × 136 This sample was taken from the umbilical cord of a fetus. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Loose Connective Tissues • The “packing materials” of the body • Three types in adults 1. Areolar 2. Adipose 3. Reticular © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Areolar Tissue • Least specialized • Open framework • Viscous ground substance • Elastic fibers • Holds blood vessels and capillary beds • For example, under skin (subcutaneous layer) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Adipose Tissue • Contains many adipocytes (fat cells) • 2 types of adipose tissue 1. White fat 2. Brown fat © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • White fat • Most common • Stores fat • Absorbs shocks • Slows heat loss (insulation) • Brown fat • More vascularized • Adipocytes have many mitochondria • When stimulated by nervous system, fat breakdown accelerates, releasing energy • Absorbs energy from surrounding tissues © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Adipose Tissue • Adipose cells • Adipocytes in adults do not divide • Expand to store fat • Shrink as fats are released • Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate • To produce more fat cells • When more storage is needed © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Reticular Tissue • Provides support • Complex, three-dimensional network • Supportive fibers (stroma) • Support functional cells (parenchyma) • Reticular organs • Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-10a Adipose and Reticular Tissues Adipose Tissue LOCATIONS: Deep to the skin, especially at sides, buttocks, breasts; padding around eyes and kidneys FUNCTIONS: Provides padding and cushions shocks; insulates (reduces heat loss); stores energy Adipocytes (white adipose cells) Adipose tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 300 Figure 4-10b Adipose and Reticular Tissues Reticular Tissue LOCATIONS: Liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow FUNCTIONS: Provides supporting framework Reticular fibers Reticular tissue from liver Reticular Tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 375 4-4 Connective Tissue • Dense Connective Tissues • Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers • Dense regular connective tissue • Dense irregular connective tissue • Elastic tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Dense Regular Connective Tissue • Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers • Tendons attach muscles to bones • Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs • Aponeuroses attach in sheets to large, flat muscles © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-11a Dense Connective Tissues Dense Regular Connective Tissue LOCATIONS: Between skeletal muscles and skeleton (tendons and aponeuroses); between bones or stabilizing positions of internal organs (ligaments); covering skeletal muscles; deep fasciae FUNCTIONS: Provides firm attachment; conducts pull of muscles; reduces friction between muscles; stabilizes relative positions of bones © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Collagen fibers Fibroblast nuclei Tendon LM × 440 4-4 Connective Tissue • Dense Irregular Connective Tissue • Interwoven networks of collagen fibers • Layered in skin • Around cartilages (perichondrium) • Around bones (periosteum) • Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver, kidneys) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-11b Dense Connective Tissues Dense Irregular Connective Tissue LOCATIONS: Capsules of visceral organs; periostea and perichondria; nerve and muscle sheaths; dermis FUNCTIONS: Provides strength to resist forces applied from many directions; helps prevent overexpansion of organs such as the urinary bladder Collagen fiber bundles Deep dermis © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 111 4-4 Connective Tissue • Elastic Tissue • Made of elastic fibers • For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-11c Dense Connective Tissues Elastic Tissue LOCATIONS: Between vertebrae of the spinal column (ligamentum flavum and ligamentum nuchae); ligaments supporting penis; ligaments supporting transitional epithelia; in blood vessel walls Elastic fibers FUNCTIONS: Stabilizes positions of vertebrae and penis; cushions shocks; permits expansion and contraction of organs Fibroblast nuclei Elastic ligament © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 887 4-4 Connective Tissue • Fluid Connective Tissues • Blood and lymph • Watery matrix of dissolved proteins • Carry specific cell types (formed elements) • Formed elements of blood • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) • White blood cells (leukocytes) • Platelets © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Fluid Elements of Connective Tissues • Extracellular • Plasma • Interstitial fluid • Lymph © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-12 Formed Elements of the Blood Red blood cells Red blood cells, or erythrocytes (e-RITH-ro-sıts), are ¯ ¯ responsible for the transport of oxygen (and, to a lesser degree, of carbon dioxide) in the blood. Red blood cells account for roughly half the volume of whole blood and give blood its color. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-12 Formed Elements of the Blood White blood cells White blood cells, or leukocytes ¯ ¯ (LOO-ko-sıts; leuko-, white), help defend the body from infection and disease. Neutrophil Eosinophil Monocytes are phagocytes similar to the free macrophages in other tissues. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lymphocytes are uncommon in the blood but they are the dominant cell type in lymph, the second type of fluid connective tissue. Basophil Eosinophils and neutrophils are phagocytes. Basophils promote inflammation much like mast cells in other connective tissues. Figure 4-12 Formed Elements of the Blood Platelets Platelets are membrane-enclosed packets of cytoplasm that function in blood clotting. These cell fragments are involved in the clotting response that seals leaks in damaged or broken blood vessels. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Lymph • Extracellular fluid • Collected from interstitial space • Monitored by immune system • Transported by lymphatic (lymphoid) system • Returned to venous system © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-4 Connective Tissue • Fluid Tissue Transport Systems • Cardiovascular system (blood) • Arteries • Capillaries • Veins • Lymphatic (lymphoid) system (lymph) • Lymphatic vessels © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Support Soft Tissues and Body Weight • Cartilage • Gel-type ground substance • For shock absorption and protection • Bone • Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals) • For weight support © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Cartilage Matrix • Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates • Ground substance proteins • Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by lacunae (chambers) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Cartilage Structure • No blood vessels • Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor • Perichondrium • Outer, fibrous layer (for strength) • Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-13a The Growth of Cartilage Matrix New matrix Chondrocyte Lacuna Chondrocyte undergoes division within a lacuna surrounded by cartilage matrix. Interstitial growth © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. As daughter cells secrete additional matrix, they move apart, expanding the cartilage from within. Figure 4-13b The Growth of Cartilage Fibroblast Dividing stem cell Perichondrium New matrix Chondroblasts Immature chondrocyte Older matrix Cells in the cellular layer of the perichondrium differentiate into chondroblasts. Appositional growth © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. These immature chondroblasts secrete new matrix. Mature chondrocyte As the matrix enlarges, more chondroblasts are incorporated; they are replaced by divisions of stem cells in the perichondrium. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Types of Cartilage 1. Hyaline cartilage 2. Elastic cartilage 3. Fibrocartilage (fibrous cartilage) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Hyaline Cartilage • Stiff, flexible support • Reduces friction between bones • Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea • Elastic Cartilage • Supportive but bends easily • Found in external ear and epiglottis © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Fibrocartilage (Fibrous Cartilage) • Limits movement • Prevents bone-to-bone contact • Pads knee joints • Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-14a Types of Cartilage Hyaline Cartilage LOCATIONS: Between tips of ribs and bones of sternum; covering bone surfaces at synovial joints; supporting larynx (voice box), trachea, and bronchi; forming part of nasal septum FUNCTIONS: Provides stiff but somewhat flexible support; reduces friction between bony surfaces Chondrocytes in lacunae Matrix LM × 500 Hyaline cartilage © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-14b Types of Cartilage Elastic Cartilage LOCATIONS: Auricle of external ear; epiglottis; auditory canal; cuneiform cartilages of larynx FUNCTIONS: Provides support, but tolerates distortion without damage and returns to original shape Chondrocyte in lacuna Elastic fibers in matrix LM × 358 Elastic cartilage © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-14c Types of Cartilage Fibrocartilage LOCATIONS: Pads within knee joint; between pubic bones of pelvis; intervertebral discs FUNCTIONS: Resists compression; prevents boneto-bone contact; limits movement Chondrocytes in lacunae Fibrous matrix LM × 400 Fibrocartilage © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues • Bone or Osseous Tissue • Strong (calcified calcium salt deposits) • Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers) • Bone Cells or Osteocytes • Arranged around central canals within matrix • Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply • Periosteum • Covers bone surfaces • Fibrous layer • Cellular layer © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-15 Bone Canaliculi Osteocytes in lacunae Matrix Osteon Central canal Blood vessels Osteon © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 375 Fibrous layer Cellular layer Periosteum Table 4-2 A Comparison of Cartilage and Bone © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-6 Membranes • Membranes • Physical barriers • Line or cover portions of the body • Consist of: • An epithelium • Supported by connective tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-6 Membranes • Four Types of Membranes 1. Mucous membranes 2. Serous membranes 3. Cutaneous membrane 4. Synovial membranes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-6 Membranes • Mucous Membranes (Mucosae) • Line passageways that have external connections • In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts • Epithelial surfaces must be moist • To reduce friction • To facilitate absorption and excretion • Lamina propria • Is areolar tissue © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-16a Membranes Mucous secretion Epithelium Lamina propria (areolar tissue) Mucous membranes are coated with the secretions of mucous glands. These membranes line the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-6 Membranes • Serous Membranes • Line cavities not open to the outside • Are thin but strong • Have fluid transudate to reduce friction • Have a parietal portion covering the cavity • Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-6 Membranes • Three Serous Membranes 1. Pleura • Lines pleural cavities • Covers lungs 2. Peritoneum • Lines peritoneal cavity • Covers abdominal organs 3. Pericardium • Lines pericardial cavity • Covers heart © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-16b Membranes Transudate Mesothelium Areolar tissue Serous membranes line the ventral body cavities (the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities). © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-6 Membranes • Cutaneous Membrane • Is skin, surface of the body • Thick, waterproof, and dry • Synovial Membranes • Line moving, articulating joint cavities • Produce synovial fluid (lubricant) • Protect the ends of bones • Lack a true epithelium © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-16c Membranes Epithelium Areolar tissue Dense irregular connective tissue The cutaneous membrane, or skin, covers the outer surface of the body. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-16d Membranes Articular (hyaline) tissue Synovial fluid Capsule Capillary Adipocytes Areolar tissue Epithelium Synovial membrane Bone Synovial membranes line joint cavities and produce the fluid within the joint. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-7 Internal Framework of the Body • Connective Tissues 1. Provide strength and stability 2. Maintain positions of internal organs 3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves • Fasciae • Singular form = fascia • The body’s framework of connective tissue • Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-7 Internal Framework of the Body • Three Types of Fasciae 1. Superficial fascia 2. Deep fascia 3. Subserous fascia © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-17 The Fasciae Body wall Connective Tissue Framework of Body Body cavity Superficial Fascia • Between skin and underlying organs • Areolar tissue and adipose tissue • Also known as subcutaneous layer or hypodermis Skin Deep Fascia • Forms a strong, fibrous internal framework • Dense connective tissue • Bound to capsules, tendons, and ligaments Subserous Fascia Rib • Between serous membranes and deep fascia • Areolar tissue Serous membrane Cutaneous membrane © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-8 Muscle Tissue • Muscle Tissue • Specialized for contraction • Produces all body movement • Three types of muscle tissue 1. Skeletal muscle tissue • Large body muscles responsible for movement 2. Cardiac muscle tissue • Found only in the heart 3. Smooth muscle tissue • Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-8 Muscle Tissue • Classification of Muscle Cells • Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance) • Nonstriated (not banded; smooth) • Muscle cells can have a single nucleus • Muscle cells can be multinucleate • Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously) • Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily (automatically) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-8 Muscle Tissue • Skeletal Muscle Cells • Long and thin • Usually called muscle fibers • Do not divide • New fibers are produced by stem cells (myosatellite cells) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-18a Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Tissue Cells are long, cylindrical, striated, and multinucleate. Nuclei LOCATIONS: Combined with connective tissues and neural tissue in skeletal muscles FUNCTIONS: Moves or stabilizes the position of the skeleton; guards entrances and exits to the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts; generates heat; protects internal organs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Muscle fiber Striations Skeletal muscle LM × 180 4-8 Muscle Tissue • Cardiac Muscle Cells • Called cardiocytes • Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs • Regulated by pacemaker cells • Smooth Muscle Cells • Small and tapered • Can divide and regenerate © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-18b Muscle Tissue Cardiac Muscle Tissue Nucleus Cells are short, branched, and striated, usually with a single nucleus; cells are interconnected by intercalated discs. Cardiac muscle cells LOCATION: Heart FUNCTIONS: Circulates blood; maintains blood (hydrostatic) pressure Intercalated discs Striations Cardiac muscle © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 450 Figure 4-18c Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue Cells are short, spindle-shaped, and nonstriated, with a single, central nucleus. LOCATIONS: Found in the walls of blood vessels and in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive organs Nucleus FUNCTIONS: Moves food, urine, and reproductive tract secretions; controls diameter of respiratory passageways; regulates diameter of blood vessels Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. LM × 235 4-9 Neural Tissue • Neural Tissue • Also called nervous or nerve tissue • Specialized for conducting electrical impulses • Rapidly senses internal or external environment • Processes information and controls responses • Neural tissue is concentrated in the central nervous system • Brain • Spinal cord © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-9 Neural Tissue • Two Types of Neural Cells 1. Neurons • Nerve cells • Perform electrical communication 2. Neuroglia • Supporting cells • Repair and supply nutrients to neurons © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-9 Neural Tissue • Cell Parts of a Neuron • Cell body • Contains the nucleus and nucleolus • Dendrites • Short branches extending from the cell body • Receive incoming signals • Axon (nerve fiber) • Long, thin extension of the cell body • Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-19 Neural Tissue NEURONS NEUROGLIA (supporting cells) Nuclei of neuroglia Cell body Axon • Maintain physical structure of tissues • Repair tissue framework after injury • Perform phagocytosis • Provide nutrients to neurons • Regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding neurons Nucleolus Nucleus of neuron Dendrites LM × 600 Dendrites (contacted by other neurons) Axon (conducts information to other cells) Microfibrils and microtubules Nucleolus Mitochondrion Nucleus Contact with other cells Cell body (contains nucleus and major organelles) A representative neuron (sizes and shapes vary widely) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-19 Neural Tissue Nuclei of neuroglia Cell body Axon Nucleolus Nucleus of neuron Dendrites LM × 600 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-19 Neural Tissue NEUROGLIA (supporting cells) • Maintain physical structure of tissues • Repair tissue framework after injury • Perform phagocytosis • Provide nutrients to neurons • Regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding neurons © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-19 Neural Tissue Dendrites (contacted by other neurons) Mitochondrion Nucleus Microfibrils and microtubules Nucleolus Cell body (contains nucleus A representative neuron and major organelles) (sizes and shapes vary widely) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Axon (conducts information to other cells) Contact with other cells 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • Tissues Respond to Injuries • To maintain homeostasis • Cells restore homeostasis with two processes 1. Inflammation 2. Regeneration © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • Inflammation = Inflammatory Response • The tissue’s first response to injury • Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory response include: • Swelling • Redness • Heat • Pain © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • Inflammatory Response • Can be triggered by: • Trauma (physical injury) • Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • The Process of Inflammation • Damaged cells release chemical signals into the surrounding interstitial fluid • Prostaglandins • Proteins • Potassium ions © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • The Process of Inflammation • As cells break down: • Lysosomes release enzymes that destroy the injured cell and attack surrounding tissues • Tissue destruction is called necrosis © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • The Process of Inflammation • Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound • Abscess – pus trapped in an enclosed area • Injury stimulates mast cells to release: • Histamine • Heparin • Prostaglandins © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • The Process of Inflammation • Dilation of blood vessels • Increases blood circulation in the area • Causes warmth and redness • Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area • Removes wastes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • The Process of Inflammation • Plasma diffuses into the area • Causes swelling and pain • Phagocytic white blood cells • Clean up the area © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • Regeneration • When the injury or infection is cleaned up • Healing (regeneration) begins • The Process of Regeneration • Fibrocytes move into necrotic area • Lay down collagen fibers • To bind the area together (scar tissue) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • The Process of Regeneration • New cells migrate into area • Or are produced by mesenchymal stem cells • Not all tissues can regenerate • Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well • Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate poorly) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-20 Tissue Repair Mast Cell Activation stimulates Exposure to Pathogens and Toxins Injured tissue contains an abnormal concentration of pathogens, toxins, waste products, and the chemicals from injured cells. When a tissue is injured, a general defense mechanism is activated. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. When an injury damages connective tissue, mast cells release a variety of chemicals. This process, called mast cell activation, stimulates inflammation. Mast cell Figure 4-20 Tissue Repair Mast Cell Activation When an injury damages connective tissue, mast cells release a variety of chemicals. This process, called mast cell activation, stimulates inflammation. Mast cell Histamine Heparin Prostaglandins INFLAMMATION Inflammation produces several familiar indications of injury, including swelling, redness, warmth, and pain. Inflammation may also result from the presence of pathogens, such as harmful bacteria, within the tissues; the presence of these pathogens constitutes an infection. Increased Blood Flow Increased Vessel Permeability Pain In response to the released chemicals, blood vessels dilate, increasing blood flow through the damaged tissue. Vessel dilation is accompanied by an increase in the permeability of the capillary walls. Plasma now diffuses into the injured tissue, so the area becomes swollen. The abnormal conditions within the tissue and the chemicals released by mast cells stimulate nerve endings that produce the sensation of pain. PAIN © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4-20 Tissue Repair Increased Local Temperature Increased Oxygen and Nutrients Increased Phagocytosis Removal of Toxins and Wastes The increased blood flow and permeability causes the tissue to become warm and red. Vessel dilation, increased blood flow, and increased vessel permeability result in enhanced delivery of oxygen and nutrients. Phagocytes in the tissue are activated, and they begin engulfing tissue debris and pathogens. Enhanced circulation carries away toxins and waste products, distributing them to the kidneys for excretion, or to the liver for inactivation. O2 Toxins and wastes Regeneration Regeneration is the repair that occurs after the damaged tissue has been stabilized and the inflammation has subsided. Fibroblasts move into the area, laying down a collagenous framework known as scar tissue. Over time, scar tissue is usually “remodeled” and gradually assumes a more normal appearance. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Inflammation Subsides Over a period of hours to days, the cleanup process generally succeeds in eliminating the inflammatory stimuli. Figure 4-20 Tissue Repair Normal tissue conditions restored Inhibits mast cell activation © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Regeneration Regeneration is the repair that occurs after the damaged tissue has been stabilized and the inflammation has subsided. Fibroblasts move into the area, laying down a collagenous framework known as scar tissue. Over time, scar tissue is usually “remodeled” and gradually assumes a more normal appearance. 4-11 Aging and Tissue • Aging and Tissue Structure • Speed and efficiency of tissue repair decrease with age, due to: • Slower rate of energy consumption (metabolism) • Hormonal alterations • Reduced physical activity © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-11 Aging and Tissue • Effects of Aging • Chemical and structural tissue changes • Thinning epithelia and connective tissues • Increased bruising and bone brittleness • Joint pain and broken bones • Cardiovascular disease • Mental deterioration © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-11 Aging and Tissue • Aging and Cancer Incidence • Cancer rates increase with age • 25% of all people in the United States develop cancer • Cancer is the #2 cause of death in the United States • Environmental chemicals and cigarette smoke cause cancer © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.