Download SCLY3: Sociology of Mass Media Revision

Topic 1: The
Process
of
Socialisation
Can you define the following….
Norms
Achieved Status
Socialization
Mores
Ascribed Status
Primary
Socialization
Values
Laws
Secondary
Socialization
Roles
Deviance
Resocialization
Sanction
Anticipatory
Socialization
Culture
Socialisation is the
process whereby
individuals learn the
shared norms and
values around them.
For Functionalists
the process of
socialisation is
POSITIVE.
Functionalism is a
CONSENSUS,
MARCO APPROACH
TO SOCIOLOGY.
Functionalism &
Socialisation
Durkheim argued
socialisation ensures a
‘COLLECTIVE
CONSCIENCE’ within
society. Furthermore,
individuals are the
product of society.
Parsons AGREES with
Durkheim, and argues
socialisation ensures a
VALUE CONSENSUS.
Members of society
INTERALISE norms and
values, making SOCIAL
ORDER POSSIBLE.
: Marxist Gouldner (1970)
what about the conflict within
the socialisation process?
: Interactionist Wrong (1961)
individuals can rebel and reject
social norms and values – an
‘oversocialised’ view of man is
presented.
For Marxists the
process of
socialisation is
NEGATIVE.
Socialisation is the
process whereby
individuals learn the
norms and values of
the R/C (Bourgeoisie).
Marxism is a
CONFLICT, MARCO
APPROACH TO
SOCIOLOGY.
Marxism &
Socialisation
For Marxists the
process of
socialisation is a
form of SOCIAL
CONTROL.
: Inkeles (1968): all societies
have ‘societal demands’ common
ideas of what their adults
should be like, therefore there
must be some degree of
consensus within the
socialisation process.
For Feminists the
process of
socialisation is
NEGATIVE.
Socialisation is the
process whereby
individuals learn
traditional gender
roles.
Like Marxism, Feminism
is a CONFLICT, MARCO
APPROACH TO
SOCIOLOGY.
Feminism &
Socialisation
Feminism argues
females are
socialised into a
PATRIARCHAL
SOCIETY.
Oakley (1970) suggests there are
differentiated gender roles for males and
females which arise from culture not
biology. Although these vary, she argues
there is a clear pattern of male
dominance. Males and females during in
socialization are orientated towards
different roles, activities and behaviours.
: Risman
and Myers
(1997):
things are
beginning to
change, some
households
are now
socializing
children into
a strong
‘FEMINIST
IDEOLOGY’
children are
being taught
the
importance of
gender
equality and
to combat
stereotypical
gender roles.
For Interactionists
individuals are ACTIVE
within the process of
socialisation.
Socialisation is the
process whereby
individuals create their
own identities
Interactionism is an
ACTION, MIRCO
APPROACH TO
SOCIOLOGY.
Interactionism &
Socialisation
Handel (2006): individuals are active not passive in the process of socialisation,
children do not blindly accept the norms/values they are socialised into, not
everybody has the same experience of socialisation e.g. class, gender, ethnicity,
etc.
Giddens attempts a
‘MIDDLE WAY’
between structure and
action theory.
Giddens sees the
importance of both
social structures and
an individual's free will
(agency).
Structuration Theory
combines structure and
action theory.
Giddens &
Socialisation
Individual's use both social
structures and interactions
between individuals to form a
sense of self/their culture,
thus they are
‘INTERDEPENDENT’ of one
another.
Introduces the
idea of the
REFLEXIVE SELF
TASK: What
are the
agencies of
socialization?
The Family
How does the Family socialize?
•
Agent of PRIMARY
SOCIALIZATION
• Despite increasing
diversity, the family is still
the main source of
socialization within society.
•
The family acts as a
‘reference group’ and
allows children to imitate
social norms, children can
discover acceptable and
unacceptable behaviour
•
The family will use
sanctions when children
exhibit unacceptable
behaviour.
Functionalism: the Functionalist Parsons, views
the family as a ‘personality factory’. It is the
role of the parents, especially the mother, to
mould the passive child into to image of society.
The child is filled up with the shared cultural
values and thus subscribes to the value wider
consensus.
Marxism: children are socialized into a set of
shared and agreed norms and values. Marxist
Zaresky argues the family is used by the R/C to
instil values that are useful to them e.g.
obedience and respect for authority. This
ensures exploitation in later life as the children
have learnt power, authority and inequality are
inevitable.
Education
How does the Education
socialize?
Agency of SECONDARY
SOCIALIZATION.
•
• It builds upon the
socialization received in
early years.
•
It provides children
with academic
knowledge to help them
make sense of the
world and social skills
to benefit them in later
life.
Functionalism: the Functionalist Durkheim sees
education as essential. Subjects within the
curriculum allow children to link the past & present,
encouraging pride and belonging e.g. History and
RE. The Functionalist Parsons suggests education
acts as a bridge between family and the wider
society, preparing people for work by instilling
values of achievement, competition and
individualism.
Marxism: the Neo-Marxist Althusser argues
education benefits the R/C as children not only
learn academic knowledge but also character traits
to benefit the R/C – this process her terms the
‘hidden curriculum.’ Subjects which promote a
critical investigation of society are neglected and
instead education makes children accept the
hierarchy and see failure as their own fault.
Failure will keep feeding the need for an
uneducated manual labour force.
RELIGION
How does Religion
socialize?
•
Agency of
SECONDARY
SOCIALIZATION.
•
Introduces children to
the ‘spiritual world’
however, also impacts
on moral
values/behaviour and
attitudes.
•
Overtime religious
laws become
intertwined with
societal laws.
Functionalism: the Functionalist Durkheim argues
religion socializes individuals into a value consensus.
These values become internalized and become wider
moral codes. Religion also acts as a form of social
solidarity for those who ‘belong’ unites a community of
believers and gives children further social influences.
Marxism: Marx famously termed religion “the opium of
the people.’ Religion suggest wealth is reward from
God, if you are rich it is a gift from God, if poor
punishment from God. Religion gives the W/C
something other to focus upon rather than
exploitation. Religion justifies exploitation. Because
it promises a reward in the afterlife.
How does the PEERGROUP socialize?
How does the MASS
MEDIA socialize?
•
•
Agency of SECONDARY
SOCIALIZATION.
Many argue this is the
most significant agency
today. It has far more
influence than any
other on the individual
(especially young
people).
The media allows people
to make sense of the
world, it gives
individuals information
and a window into the
wider world.
•
•
Also provides a source
of role models and
designs for living.
How does
EMPLOYMENT
socialize?
Agency of
SECONDARY
SOCIALIZATION.
•
Young children learn
social norms through
play e.g. negotiation.
It also allows children
to undergo the process
of anticipatory
socialization.
Agency of
SECONDARY
SOCIALIZATI
ON, occurs
later in life.
•
Involves the
processes of
resocialization
and
anticipatory
socialization.
•
Furthermore,
it offers both
formal and
informal
socialization.
•
•
•
The peer group is
especially important
for teenagers as it
allows them to develop
a sense of
independence. Peers
act as a reference
group.
Topic 2: Sources &
Different Concepts
of Self, Identity and
Difference
Can you define the following….
Identity
Personality
Social
Identity
Superego
Looking
Glass
Self
Ego
Individual
Identity
Multiple
Identity
Symbolic
Interactionism
Id
Dramaturgy
Collective
Identity
An overview
Structural Theory
Identity is
imposed on the
individual through
the socialization
process.
Individuals are
passive and
influenced by
social institutions.
Action Theory
Identity is created
by the individual.
Individuals take
meanings from
their interactions.
Individuals are
creators of
meanings, they can
reject social
influences.
Belongs to SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM.
AN ANCTION/MIRCO
THEORY.
Mead argues: the self is
not there from birth, but
develops over time from
social experiences and
activities.
Argues 3 things are
essential for the
development of the
self: language, play and
games.
Mead & Identity
For Mead an
individual's
identity/sense of self
is created by
imagining an individual
having two sides: “I”
and “ME.”
The ‘ME' is considered
the socialized aspect of
the individual.
The ‘I’ represents the
individual's identity based
on a response to the
'me.'
The ‘I’ and ‘ME’ work
together to enable
the
individual
to
function in society.
Belongs to SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM.
AN ANCTION/MIRCO
THEORY.
Our ID is constantly
changing and developing
through our daily life.
For Cooley an individual's
identity/sense of self is
created by something
called the ‘looking glass
self.’
Cooley & Identity
The L.G.S is the
idea that an
image of
ourselves is
reflected in the
reactions of
other people to
us.
As individuals consider
this image, we modify
and change our
behaviour/ID. Thus our
ID is socially
constructed.
Belongs to SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM.
AN ANCTION/MIRCO
THEORY.
Our ID is developed through
the way we ‘act’ in society.
Goffman’s theory is
dramaturgical – the whole
world is a stage.
Goffman argues we use
IMPRESSION
MANAGEMENT to create
IDs.
Goffman & Identity
Like actors we
present images –
‘the presentation of
self’ to others and
act like we wish to
be seen. We use
props or symbols to
present these
images.
Society is divided into
the ‘front stage’ and
the ‘back stage.’ On
each ‘stage’ we act
differently.
If we act a certain
way on the ‘front
stage’ our ID may
become ‘spoiled’
through
‘stigmatization’.
Founded the
Psychodynamic School
of Psychology.
Our ID is split into three
parts: ID, Ego and
Superego.
ID: this is something we
are born with it is the
most basic part of ID,
and is concerned with
instant gratification.
Freud & Identity
Ego: deals with
reality, trying to
meet the desires of
the ID in a way
that is socially
acceptable in the
world.
Superego: the
superego develops last,
and is based on morals
and judgments about
right and wrong.
Postmodernism rejects
‘modernist’ theories and
argues today’s society is
too complex to be
understood and
theorised.
Mediasaturated
society .
In today’s society there are
so many choices available to
us in relation to how we
should live our lives.
Our identity is continually
created and re-created
through our consumption
of cultural products and
symbols.
Postmodernism and
Identity
Bauman (1996) argues
identity no longer has a
stable basis, identity has
now become a matter of
choice – individuals can
change their identity as and
when they want.
Instead of one mainstream
culture we now have a variety of
cultures to choose from. The
dominant mainstream culture is
being replaced by a wide variety
of ‘taste groups’ and an
increasing diversity of lifestyles.
Pick ‘n’ mix
society.
Postmodernist
Hobswarn notes that
most identities are
like ‘shirts’ that we
choose to wear,
rather than the skin
we are born with.
Topic 3: Differing
Conceptions of Culture
Can you define the following….
Culture
Subculture
Global
Culture
Folk
Culture
High
Culture
Mass/Low
Culture
Popular
Culture
Globalization
Bricolage
Status
Frustration
Metanarrative
Dominant
Culture
Culture: the things people learn
that make up the way of life in
any society – these include:
language, beliefs, values, norms,
customs, dress, diet, knowledge
and skills.
Characteristics of Folk Culture:
Folk Culture:
authentic and actively created.
•
the
habits/customs
of traditional
rural
communities
emerging
directly from
their lived
experience.
•
•
•
created by local communities.
rooted in the experience, customs
and beliefs of everyday ordinary
people.
associated with pre/early industrial
society.
Use examples to expand your point.
High Culture:
culture that is
seen to have an
artistic and/or
intellectual
merit which is
highly valued in
society e.g.
classical music,
fine art.
Characteristics of High Culture:
• separate/set apart.
• found in special places.
• superior.
• associated with the elites of
society.
Use examples to expand your point.
Mass/Low
Culture:
an inferior
quality culture.
Often it is in
contrast to high
culture and is
associated with
those from a
lower socioeconomic group.
Characteristics of Mass/Low Culture:
• created by commercial
organisations.
• passive.
• associated with industrial societies.
• is produced for profit.
• inauthenticity.
Use examples to expand your point.
How is mass culture explained? What
do the Frankfurt School say?
Popular Culture:
culture that is
commercially
produced and
includes
objects,
images,
artefacts,
literature and
music of
ordinary people
e.g. films, TV,
magazines.
Characteristics of Popular Culture:
• reflects the norms, values,
institutions and activities of the
majority.
• culture of the working class rather
than the ruling class.
• it assumes its consumers are active
not passive .
• challenge mainstream ideas.
Use examples to expand your point.
Subculture: a group that
develop their own norms and
values that are different to
mainstream society e.g.
ethnic groups,
working/upper class, youth,
sexuality.
Theorising Youth Subcultures Functionalism:
Functionalists e.g. Eisenstadt (1956) & Parsons
(1956) suggest youth subcultures emerge as a
way of dealing with status frustration. They
suggest they are a fairly normal and transitional
stage from childhood to adulthood. They are
often short-lived & expressed through pleasure
seeking activity often in the company of the
peer group.
Theorising Subcultures: Functionalism
Evaluating Youth Subcultures Functionalism:
: Functionalism doesn’t explain the wide variety of subcultures. It doesn’t
account for the differences between them because of class, age, gender etc.
: What about the negative aspects of youth subcultures? What about their
dysfunctions e.g. links to racism and anti-social behaviour?
Theorising Youth Subcultures
Marxism: Marxism looks at the
diversity of subcultures. It focuses
on the differences between
subcultures because of social class.
•
Hall and Jefferson (1976): examined the youth
styles of Skinheads, Punks, Teddy Boys and
Mods as subcultures of resistance to the
dominant class and culture of society.
•
Hebdige (1976): examined the Mods and found
their style was used as a reaction to the tedium
of their life and work.
Theorising Subcultures: Marxism
Cohen (1972) saw W/C subcultures
as a means of re-establishing a
sense of community and social
cohesion lost due to the break-up of
traditional W/C communities because
of unemployment and rehousing. This
is supported through the work of
Clarke et al (1976) and Hebdige
(1979) who examined ‘Skinhead
Style’ and found items of clothing
e.g. Dr Martens, braces and
skinheads were used as an attempt
to recreate the traditional working
class community.
•
Furthermore, Hebdige (1979) saw
the bricolage of punk subcultures
as a form of resistance to
dominant cultural norms and
values. They deliberately sought
to be offensive, shocking and ugly
e.g. spitting and swearing to
express their view that society is
also ugly and offensive.
•
Brake (1985) also saw W/C youth
subcultures as expressions of
hostility and resistance to the
dominant class.
Theorising Youth Subcultures
Marxism: Marxism looks at the
diversity of subcultures. It focuses
on the differences between
subcultures because of social class.
•
Hall and Jefferson (1976): examined the youth
styles of Skinheads, Punks, Teddy Boys and
Mods as subcultures of resistance to the
dominant class and culture of society.
•
Hebdige (1976): examined the Mods and found
their style was used as a reaction to the tedium
of their life and work.
Theorising Subcultures: Marxism
Cohen (1972) saw W/C subcultures
as a means of re-establishing a
sense of community and social
cohesion lost due to the break-up of
traditional W/C communities because
of unemployment and rehousing. This
is supported through the work of
Clarke et al (1976) and Hebdige
(1979) who examined ‘Skinhead
Style’ and found items of clothing
e.g. Dr Martens, braces and
skinheads were used as an attempt
to recreate the traditional working
class community.
•
Furthermore, Hebdige (1979) saw
the bricolage of punk subcultures
as a form of resistance to
dominant cultural norms and
values. They deliberately sought
to be offensive, shocking and ugly
e.g. spitting and swearing to
express their view that society is
also ugly and offensive.
•
Brake (1985) also saw W/C youth
subcultures as expressions of
hostility and resistance to the
dominant class.
: Marxists focus their
attention on high-profile,
white, male, W/C, youth
subcultures. They ignore
MC, ethnic minority and
female subcultures.
: The Interactionist Cohen (1972)
rejects the idea subcultures are
created by factors such as class,
gender, ethnicity and location they are
manufactured by the mass media.
Theorising Subcultures: Evaluating Marxism
: Postmodernists e.g. Bennett (2001) suggest that subcultures may
not be formed out of resistance, but instead just for fun.
In Postmodern, media-saturated society, Postmodernist Thornton
(1995), argues young people develop their identity and position in
society through what they see and hear in the media.
Feminism suggests female
participation in subcultures is
ignored.
Feminists suggest females are less involved
in male-dominated subcultures for three
main reasons:
•
• gender role socialisation.
strict control of leisure time by parents.
• concerns about personal safety.
Theorising Subcultures: Feminism
Traditionally, girls have been confined to
the private sphere of their home.
McRobbie & Garber (1976) found that
female subcultures took the form of
what they called ‘bedroom culture’ –
these focused on activities such as:
listening and discussing music, make-up,
beauty, talking about boys & dance
routines. Today, however, Lincoln (2004)
suggests also this ‘bedroom culture still
exists, the internet and sites like
Facebook make these activities difficult
to study.
Hollands (1995) found that girls
today are much more involved in
youth subcultures outside of the
home and is becoming similar to
men, females are now going out
more and becoming more involved in
dance and drug subcultures.
Feminism suggests female
participation in subcultures is
ignored.
Feminists suggest females are less involved
in male-dominated subcultures for three
main reasons:
•
• gender role socialisation.
strict control of leisure time by parents.
• concerns about personal safety.
Theorising Subcultures: Feminism
Traditionally, girls have been confined to
the private sphere of their home.
McRobbie & Garber (1976) found that
female subcultures took the form of
what they called ‘bedroom culture’ –
these focused on activities such as:
listening and discussing music, make-up,
beauty, talking about boys & dance
routines. Today, however, Lincoln (2004)
suggests also this ‘bedroom culture still
exists, the internet and sites like
Facebook make these activities difficult
to study.
Hollands (1995) found that girls
today are much more involved in
youth subcultures outside of the
home and is becoming similar to
men, females are now going out
more and becoming more involved in
dance and drug subcultures.
Postmodernism rejects the
concept of subculture, as they
regard them as metanarratives
trying to fit people into social
structures. Postmodernists reject
structural factors e.g. class,
gender, age and ethnicity have
become less significant as
sources of identity and the
formation of groups.
Culture is so fragmented it is no longer
possible to talk about things such as
dominant, mainstream or subcultures
because all culture is now just so many
different tastes chosen through
consumerism.
Theorising Subcultures: Postmodernism
Postmodernist Bennett (1999) suggests the cultural activities of
today’s youth no long revolves around the formation of youth
subcultures but neo-tribalism – the young are no longer
interested in forming fixed subcultures around their social status
instead they use consumer choice to identify themselves with a
range or groups (tribes). Life in the postmodern, individualised,
media-saturated, consumer-driven world is so fluid, nobody knows
that will happen next.
Global Culture:
people in different
countries sharing the same
norms/values/
attitudes/
products e.g. world music.
Globalisation:
the growing interdependence and
interconnectedness of societies
across the world and events
which happen in one part of the
world are influencing what
happens in another; socially,
politically and economically.
Characteristics of
Global Culture:
global products.
•
•
global media
corporations.
•
the internet.
•
international
tourism.
Use examples to
expand your points.
Globalization: positive or negative?
Positive
Negative
Storey
(2003):
although
American
culture is having an impact on global
cultures he denies that it has resulted in
a
US-dominated
global
culture
(Americanization). He rejects this idea
as he argues culture is more than
commodities –things that people buy. He
argues individuals are not simply passive,
individuals adopt commodities and change
them to meet their local contexts.
Homogenization of culture: Friedman (2000) suggests
that due to the globalization process the world has
undergone a process of Americanization. Sociologists
suggests symbols of
American culture e.g. CocaCola, Microsoft, McDonalds, Budweiser etc. have now
become dominant globally. This dominance of American
cultural icons has destroyed/eroded indigenous
cultures and has imposed an American way of life on
‘local’ populations.
Glocalization: Robertson (1997) suggests
this is a process whereby global
products or services are altered to meet
the needs of each locality or culture in
which it is sold e.g. McDonalds.
Hybridization: Pieterse (2004) suggests
that
globalization
is
creating
a
hybridization mix of cultures.
She
suggests
that
cultural
flows
are
directional with non-western cultures
impacting on the West e.g. world music
and the food industry.
Cultural Convergence: Ritzer argues is leading to an
“increased sameness throughout the world”. Ritzer
supports
his
argument
by
proposing
the
‘McDonaldization Thesis’. Simply, this idea suggests,
every product, in every McDonald's, is made in the
same standardized, homogenized and formulaic way.
Cultural Imperialism: Schiller theory in its simplest
form it proposes that there has been a reduction of
cultural differences around the world and is by many
scholars associated with the spread of Western and
American cultural practises and ideologies. Support
for this theory can be found in an idea termed:
‘coca-colonisation’ – global companies use global
marketing to promote/create similar lifestyles.
Sociological Explanations of
Culture: Functionalism
•
Durkheim (1903) believed that a shared
culture is necessary if a society is to run
smoothly. This shared culture is passed down
from generation to generation and exists over
and above the wishes and choices of
individuals. People must conform to the
culture of their society if they are to avoid
the risk of punishment.
•
Parsons (1951) society is not possible without
a shared culture. It allows people to
communicate and to work towards shared
goals.
•
Parsons and Bales (1955) argue that culture
is passed on to children through socialization,
particularly through primary socialization in
the family . How do they do this?
•
Parsons and Durkheim generally saw culture
as slow to change although they believed that
major changes in culture do occur as societies
evolve.
However, to what extent is
there a shared culture in
contemporary Britain?
Does everybody share the same
norms and values? Is there not a
difference of values between
different groups in society?
The Functionalist explanation of
culture seem suited to more
traditional societies than
contemporary society. Today, we
are far too diverse.
What about power inequalities?
Sociological Explanations of
Culture: Marxism
Marxists argue culture maintains class inequality.
It used by the powerful (Bourgeoisie) to ensure control in society.
Both the R.S.A and I.S.A is used.
Capitalist messages are spread through culture to ensure a continued
and large profit for the R/C.
How do the different aspects of culture, ensure class inequality and
the dominance of capitalism?
Topic 4: Identity and
its Relationship to:
disability, age,
sexuality, gender,
ethnicity, nationality
and class
Can you define the following….
Identity
Disability
Age
Sexuality
Gender
Nationality
Ethnicity
Master
Status
Sex
Hegemonic Gender Identity
Disability: a mental/physical impairment which has a substantial
and long term effect on an individual's ability to carry out normal
day-to day activities e.g. entering a building.
Ways in which
disability affects life
experience:
• work opportunities
• participation in
leisure activities.
• perceived status in
society.
verbal/physical
abuse/
• discrimination.
•
People with disabilities have many factors
which shape their identity. These include:
•
Stereotyping through Mass Media &
Social Attitudes
•
Prejudice & Discrimination
•
Labelling
•
Disability as the ‘Master Identity’
•
Disability as a ‘Stigmatized Identity.’
However, things are slowly changing because
of the disabled people’s movement creating an
identity and resistance.
Age: the length of time a person has lived/an indivudal’ s lifespan.
Ways in which age
affects life experience:
involvement in
education.
•
•
work opportunities.
•
legal responsibilities
are restrictions.
•
status in society.
•
•
degree of
independence.
leisure activities.
The
Elderly:
the
elderly
are
often
stereotyped and discriminated against because
of their age – ageism. Johnson and Bytheway
(1993) define ageism as “the offensive
exercise of power through reference to age”.
Old age is often seen as a negative life stage.
Ageism can be seen throughout society in 3
ways: in institutions, through stereotypes and
miss-guided assumptions.
The mass media is a key institution in much of
the negativity and ageism surrounding the
elderly. Through their stereotypical
representations and the symbolic annihilation
of the elderly – especially women.
Young People/Youth: see notes on youth
subcultures.
Sexuality: an individual's sexual characteristics/orientation and
behaviour e.g. heterosexual .
Ways in which sexuality
affects life experience:
•
may be subject to
physical/verbal abuse.
•
•
•
subject to
discrimination/
stereotyping.
different leisure
activities e.g.
ghettoization.
symbolically annihilated
in the media.
How may sexuality shape
identity?
Gender: the socially
constructed roles,
behaviours, activities, and
attributes that a given
society considers
appropriate for males and
females.
Sex: the biological and
physiological characteristics
that make up men and
women.
Hegemonic gender identities are
formed through the primary and
secondary socialisation process:
Family: Oakley’s 4 Processes
Education: Hidden Curriculum and
Subject choice.
Peer Group: Sexual behaviour.
Mass Media: the beauty myth
and limited roles.
Hegemonic Gender Identity:
generalised, typical or ideal
view of males and females.
Gender identities are changing for both males and females:
females are becoming more independent and males are suffering a
‘crisis of masculinity’ and there is a ‘new man’ emerging.
Is Gender Still Important?
Gender is Not Important
Gender is Important
Postmodernism rejects the idea that gender
(as well as other social characteristics) are
still significant in the formation of identity.
The Postmodernist Lyotard (1984) argues
metanarratives e.g. sociological theories or
class, gender, ethnicity etc. can no longer
explain the identities people adopt.
The changes in hegemonic gender identities
have been exaggerated, although there has
been some mild improvement we shouldn’t
get ahead of ourselves. For example,
women are still more likely to undertake
most of the housework and get paid less in
employment. Furthermore, it is
predominantly women/girls who are
concerned with the inadequacy of their
appearance and failure to ‘live up’ to female
stereotypes e.g. celebrity role models.
Postmodernists Rojek (1995) and Roberts
(1986) argue that identities are now fluid
and subject to constant change e.g.
through the use of pursuit of leisure
activities.
No longer simply ‘male’ and ‘female’
Wilkinson (1997) argues there is a growing
convergence/coming together of masculine
and feminine identities. Young people today
want to ‘flirt’ with both ‘male’ and ‘female’
to and choose and express their own
individuality.
Can you think
of other
examples?
Ethnicity: a shared culture of a social group which gives its
members a common identity, making them different from other
social groups e.g. language.
Sources for an
Ethnic Identity
• language.
• religion.
• geographical
origins.
White: White British face very little discrimination & society
at large and the agencies of socialisation favour the ‘white
British.’ However, other ‘whites’ face discrimination e.g.
White Romanian, White Polish etc. Why?
Black: Too simplistic to say ‘Black’ this is homogenising the
ethnicity. Many different ‘Black’ e.g. African Caribbean,
African American, African British etc. However, (Gilroy,
1993) suggests there is what he argues a shared historical
experience of ‘black people.’
• traditions and
cultural
practices.
Asian: Again, too simplistic to say ‘Asian’ much diversity
among Asians e.g. Asian Indian, Asian Pakistani etc. Although
some commonality e.g. extended families and Bollywood.
Differences include: language, religion, diet, dress etc.
• reaction to
racism or
discrimination.
There is a changing Asian identity in Britain: Johal (1998)
‘British Asian’ and ‘Brasians.’ Although still a stigmatization
of Asian IDs associated with religion e.g. Islam.
• history.
Family
Ghuman (1991)
suggests South
Asian families
(Indian, Pakistani
and Bangladeshi)
emphasise the
importance of
values important
to their culture
e.g. family
obligation loyalty
and respectful to
elders and
commitment to
religion.
Socialisation and Ethnic Identity
Education
Media
The education
Sewell (1996)
system may
suggests many
reinforce ethnic
aspects of ‘macho stereotypes through
B.A.C ‘ identity is
establishing ethnicderived from the
based religious
mass media. The
schools or through
media often
racism in mainstream
stereotype the
schools.
actions of B.A.C
characters.
Sewell (1996) argues
that Black AfroFurthermore, media
Caribbean identities
allows E.M to draw
were reinforced as on traditional culture
young B.A.C coped
from their country
with racist teach
of origin e.g. Asian
stereotypes by
Punjabi Bhangra
forming peer-related
music and Asian
school subcultures.
Indian Bollywood
Movies.
Religion
Jacobson (1998)
found that Islam
has become an
important source
of identity among
some British
Pakistani Asians,
this is partly a
response to the
social exclusion,
racism and lack of
opportunities
within British
society.
Nationality: a legal term which involves having rights and
responsibilities attached to being a citizen of a nation state.
Sources for a
National Identity
•
being taught a
common history.
•
participating in
cultural
events/activities.
•
through national
symbols such as
national flags.
•
having a common
language.
•
•
through the
experience of
discrimination.
through sporting
events.
Sociologists and National Identity
Hall (1992) every nation has a collection of stories,
images and symbols about its shared experience, which
people draw on to construct and express their national
identity. National identity is formed through agencies of
socialization through which it is passed on from one
generation to the next. Furthermore, national identity is
reinforced through rituals and ceremonies.
•
•
Schudsen (1994) argues British individuals are socialized
into British society in 6 ways. This occurs through the
socialization process. How might the family, education,
media, peer group, religion, work socialise an individual
into national identity?
• Palmer (1999) national identity is promoted and
maintained by heritage tourism, using historical symbols
of the nation as a means of attracting tourists. What
examples can you use?
Is Nationality Still Important?
Nationality is Not Important
Nationality is Important
Populus Survey (2011) suggests an
individual’s nationality e.g. being British is
having a declining influence as an identity
source: people are no longer identifying
themselves as British, but are now adopting
distinct ‘Celtic Identities’ e.g. English,
Scottish and Welsh identities. The survey
found that 39% of people would rather class
themselves as ‘English’ than ‘British.’
British society is made up of a wide range of ethnic
groups – Welsh, Scottish, Irish, English, Indian,
Pakistan, Afro-Caribbean etc. so it is difficult to define
the term ‘British identity’. However, in 2004 a British
Society Attitude Survey found most people defined
‘Britishness’ as speaking English, holding citizenship and
respecting the country’s laws and institutions. However,
the concept is very difficult to define.
The process of Globalization and the rise of
a ‘global culture’ is eroding traditional
national values and customs.
Recent research undertaken by the BBC Easton (2013)
suggests young people are more likely to identify
themselves as ‘British’ than their parents – therefore
concludes: Britishness, it would appear, is an identity
quite at home in the 21st Century.
The presence of ‘Nationalism.’ Especially, Dowds and
Young (1996) ‘Exclusive Nationalism’: people have no a
strong desire on maintaining tight national boundaries by
excluding immigrants and ethnic minorities, often
displaying a hatred of ‘foreigners’ and intense dislike for
European interference in British political and economic
affairs.
The rise of multiculturalism in British
society some sociologists e.g. Modood
(1997) argues found that 2nd generation
ethnic-minorities thought of themselves as
most but not entirely British. They said this
was because they didn’t feel fully accepted
by the majority of white, British people.
They therefore adopted a ‘hybrid-identity’.
Class: A system of ‘social stratification’. Whereby people are
divided based on perceived social or economic status e.g. upper,
middle and working.
Sources for a Class
Identity
•
•
•
education.
Class Characteristics
Upper
Small number
of wealthy
families.
•
family norms and
values.
•
leisure activities.
•
•
employment
‘Old Boy’/ ‘Old
School-Tie.’
•
peer group.
Three common
classes:
Upper
Middle
Working
Privately
educated and
prestigious
universities.
Conservative
norms and
values
•
High culture.
•
•
Exclusive
social events.
Middle
Broad and diverse
membership e.g.
professionals,
managers, selfemployed.
•
Focus upon home
ownership.
•
•
Both state and
private education.
Although
education is
valued.
•
High cultural
capital.
• Defer
gratification.
Working
Manual employment.
•
•
Strong sense of
communal identity.
•
Extended family
networks used as
support.
•
•
Immediate
gratification.
New ‘underclass’
emerging who are
often stigmatized
and used as
scapegoats by the
media.
Is Class Still Important?
Class is Not Important
Clarke and Saunders (1991) social class is
becoming fragmented into a range of different
groups and being replaced by a whole range of
other influences e.g. gender, religion,
consumption.
Pakulski and Waters (1996) class is dead as an
important factor in a person’s identity, it is being
replaced with the lifestyle and consumption
patterns.
Lash and Urry (1987) class subcultures (UC, MC &
WC) have weakened, people’s cultural choices,
tastes and lifestyles have become more
individualistic and less influenced by close
communities and work situations.
Postmodernists suggest identities have become
much more fluid and changeable, people can now
choose, ‘pick ‘n’ mix’, Class is another
‘metanarrative.’
A Rise in Hybrid-Identities: Class, may be
important, but not the only factor, e.g. a young
man: might take ideas from femininity (make up,
handcream, accessories), from a media role model
(copying the hero’s hairstyle and/or attitude) and
from consumption (wearing designer brands of
clothing).
Class is Important
Consumption maybe an important factor in
identity creation, but this is not a free choice,
this depends on economic capital. Social class is
still a major limitation on people choosing any
identity they desire.
The British Social Attitude Survey (2007): 95%
of people still identified with a social class. 38%
identified themselves as M/C, whilst 57% as
W/C.
Marshall and Guardian/ICM Polls (2007): many
people in the UK still see social class as a
significant source of identity, including 18-24
year olds.
Class has grown to be more complex than U/C,
M/C and W/C and is still an important factor in
identity today – Savage (2013).
Topic 5: Leisure,
Consumption and
Identity
Can you define the following….
Class
Occupation
Commercialisation of
Leisure
Tourism
Leisure
Gender
Leisure
Activities
Hybridization
Metanarrative
Leisure Opportunities and
Occupation
Evaluating Parker
The Functionalist Parker (1971)
argues an individual’s occupation
and the way they experience
work has an important impact on
their leisure time. He argues
there are three patterns:
opposition, neutrality and
extension.
: A recent survey (2012) found that only about 58%
of the population over the age of 16 were in
employment and about 27% of these were in part-time
employment therefore occupation cannot explain the
leisure activities of a substantial section of the
population. Including those who are retired, in full-time
education and the unemployed.
Leisure and Occupation
Pattern
Nature of Leisure
Opposition
Central life interest
and escape from
work.
Neutrality
An escape from
work, leisure is
used for relaxation.
Extension
A blurring between
leisure and work.
: Roberts (1978) and Clarke and Critcher (1995) argue
that Parker over simplifies the influence of work on
leisure. They suggest his ‘work-leisure typology’ doesn’t
take account of the choices people can make in leisure
activities and the variation among individuals in the same
occupation, e.g. not every fisherman will use leisure to
escape work, some may enjoy fishing for a hobby.
: Feminists McIntosh (1988) and Deem (1990) argue
Parker neglects to take into consideration the way
gender influences leisure, particularly women. They
suggest, as many women only work part-time their
leisure is far more influenced by the demands of
domestic labour and controlled by men (patriarchy) than
paid employment.
Leisure Opportunities and Social Class
•
•
Leisure Opportunities and Age
financial resources
cultural expectations about what is
appropriate for different social classes
e.g. cultural capital.
• different levels of responsibility, eg family
commitments.
• different levels of income.
time considerations due to nature of work
commitments, e.g. unsocial hours.
•
•
the physical demands of work.
• different physical capabilities.
• cohort differences, e.g. familiarity with
computer technology.
Leisure Opportunities and Gender
•
Leisure Opportunities and Ethnicity
women may have domestic duties that
men do not.
• • women are more likely to experience
double burden.
• women have less disposable income than
men.
• more public money put into provision of
male leisure facilities.
• women may be subject to patriarchal
control.
age-related legislation.
•
•
cultural expectations/differences.
discrimination e.g. racism.
•
•
time considerations due to long working
hours.
•
language difficulties.
Postmodernists argue leisure has
become privatized and home-centred.
Leisure activities that were once
available primarily outside the home
e.g. football, music and films are now
available inside the home due to
technological advances e.g. computers
and TV. Another such example is
tourism.
The Postmodernist Lyotard (1984) rejects the
idea that social characteristics e.g. class,
gender, age, ethnicity etc. or has he terms
them, ‘metanarratives’ create our identity and
therefore influence and determine leisure
activities.
Postmodernism and Leisure
Many Postmodernists suggest identity is
formed through consumption activities
undertake in our leisure time:
Rojek (1995) and Roberts (1978): fluid and
constantly changing identity.
•
•
•
Bocock (2004): consumption habits define
identity.
•
Featherstone (2007): buying human body.
Bauman and May (2004): DIY identity kit.
•
Taylor (1991): shopping mall.
Other Postmodernists
suggest identity is
formed through the
mass media:
Strinati (1995):
media shapes
consumption.
•
•
Baurdrillard
(1970): media
saturatedsociety.
Evaluating
Postmodernism
: What about
social groups?
: Social
inequalities still
exist in society.
Use this guide in
conjunction with
your notes.