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Learning and Consumption related Behaviour
According to Schiffman and Kanuk (2001), from a marketing perspective,
consumer learning is the process by which individuals acquire the purchase
and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related
behaviour.
Danny abramovich -learning is a change in behaviour which comes with
experience ,directly by observing events that affect others.
Learning is therefore relatively permanent behavioral change or potential
behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive
our environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the
way we interact, or behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study
how the process of learning affects our behavior, and he formed the school of
thought known as Behaviorism.
Behavioral Psychology is interested in how our behavior results from the
stimuli both in the environment and within ourselves. The results have helped
us learn a great deal about our behaviors, the effect our environment has on
us, how we learn new behaviors, and what motivates us to change or remain
the same.
Learning can be effective when the consumer learns to dislike or like a product.
For example, preferring one store to the other because of the attitude exerted
by another or avoiding foods that made you sick soon after consumption
enable marketers to rely on the phrase ‘experience is the best teacher’
because learning is not all knowledge based. Consumers may use brand image,
store image or even reassurance to make a decision on what and where to
buy.
Theories of Learning
There are two major theories of learning;
A.
B.
Behavioural Learning Theories
Cognitive Learning Theories
A. Behavioural Learning Theories (Stimulus Response Theories see pg 10)
These suggest that learning occurs as a result of exposure to a stimulus. The
environment stimuls should motivate the consumer to buy the product.
1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov Theory) Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning, was actually discovered accidentally by Ivan
Pavlov(1849-1936). During his experiments, he would put meat powder in the
mouths of dogs who had tubes inserted into various organs to measure bodily
responses. What he discovered was that the dogs began to salivate before the
meat powder was presented to them. Then, the dogs began to salivate as soon
as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon began to gain
interest in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favor of
his now famous Classical Conditioning study.
Basically, the findings support the idea that we develop responses to certain
stimuli that are not naturally occurring. When we touch a hot stove, our reflex
pulls our hand back. It does this instinctually, no learning involved. It is merely
a survival instinct. But why now do some people, after getting burned, pull
their hands back even when the stove is not turned on? Pavlov discovered that
we make associations which cause us to generalize our response to one stimuli
onto a neutral stimuli it is paired with.
Pavlov began pairing a bell sound with the meat powder and found that even
when the meat powder was not presented, the dog would eventually begin to
salivate after hearing the bell. Since the meat powder naturally results in
salivation, these two variables are called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
and the unconditioned response(UCR), respectively. The bell and salivation are
not naturally occurring; the dog was conditioned to respond to the bell.
Therefore, the bell is considered the conditioned stimulus(CS), and the
salivation to the bell, the conditioned response (CR).
Many of our behaviors today are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. Classical
conditioning simply refers to a situation whereby a given stimulus triggers a
certain response. Many modern advisers use classical conditioning in similar
ways. It is thus an automatic response to a situation and it develops as a result
of exposure to a situation. According to Pavlov’s theory, it can be argued that
consumers will be learning a marketing effort by a repeated exposure to the
same message through adverts. This repeated exposure results in brand
familiarity.
Learning points through Pavlov’s theory




Awareness of a stimuli resulting in exposure
Timing of the offer
Repetition has an effect of strengthening behaviour
Environment learning behaviour is exhibited or shown in an
environment that promotes it.
 Shaping marketers can direct their customers in a certain direction by
concentrating focus on certain features or details or situation
 Using this classical conditioning is meant only to create a new habit.
Critics of Classical Conditioning
Critics argue that one does not have to be involved in an act for them to learn.
They believe that people can observe the behaviour of other people;
remember it and imitate. Learning is a mental process.
Marketing implications of Classical Conditioning
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Marketers should use repeat exposure to make consumers learn
about a product
Repeated exposure creates brand familiarity and this can be achieved
through advertisements.
Repeated exposure may lead to boredom therefore there is need to
be creative and to vary the message or use different people and
media.
Marketers can produce brand knockoff/ imitations to capitalise on
brand name e.g chicken slice,nokia
Marketers design attractive packages
Colours and graphics used should be consistent so that consumers
are familiar with them.
vii)
Marketers should come up with family brand names, product line
extensions etc.
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Perhaps the most well known Behaviorist is B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). While
reputation and stimulus generalisation are used to explain how consumers
behave at the market place, they do not explain all the activities classified as
consumer learning. The term "Operant" refers to how an organism operates on
the environment, and hence, operant conditioning comes from how we
respond to what is presented to us in our environment. It can be thought of as
learning due to the natural consequences of our action e.g valuation of the
product. According to this theory, consumers learn by trial and error process
before a behaviour results in a more favourable outcome.
The classic study of Operant Conditioning involved a cat who was placed in a
box with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in
order for the door to open. The cat initially tries to get out of the box because
freedom is reinforcing. In its attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered
and the door opens. The cat is now free. Once placed in the box again, the cat
will naturally try to remember what it did to escape the previous time and will
once again find the area to press. The more the cat is placed back in the box,
the quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned, through
natural consequences, how to gain the reinforcing freedom.
We learn this way every day in our lives. Imagine the last time you made a
mistake; you most likely remember that mistake and do things differently
when the situation comes up again. In that sense, you’ve learned to act
differently based on the natural consequences of your previous actions. The
same holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in a positive
outcome, you are likely to do that same activity again.
Reinforcement
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to
anything stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific
response. All of these things increase the probability that the same response
will be repeated.
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and
extinction.
Positive Reinforcement.
Adding something in order to increase a response. The most common types of
positive reinforcement is praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced
this as both the giver and receiver e.g mobile banking cell c
Negative Reinforcement. Think of negative reinforcement as taking something
negative away in order to increase a response. The elimination of this negative
stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances consumers banking
with your bank eg high interest rates.
Punishment. Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to
decrease a behaviour .e.g parking tickets. The punishment is not liked and
therefore to avoid it, he or she will stop behaving in that manner.
Extinction. When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this
is called extinction. Eg closing time of beerhalls
Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any of
these. Adding a positive to increase a response not only works better, but
allows both parties to focus on the positive aspects of the situation.
Punishment, when applied immediately following the negative behavior can be
effective, but results in extinction when it is not applied consistently.
Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as anger and
resentment.
a) Cognitive Learning Theory (through thinking and problem solving)
This theory suggests that learning is based on mental activity when
confronted with a problem. Consumers search for information on which
to base decisions and carefully evaluate that information. If the
information is adequate, they can then embark on a trial purchase and
then finally purchase or reject the product.
The major steps are;
Awareness
Information search
create awareness to consumers
adverts, brochures
Evaluation
according to information given
Trial
try competitor, red post purchase dissonance
Adoption/rejection
It has been discovered that not all consumers go through this entire process.
Others realise a need then go straight to buying that product. As a result, they
differentiate the different types of buying behaviour into high involvement and
low involvement.
i)
Involvement Theory
It is sometimes called the Brain Split theory/Hemispheral Laterization
Theory. The premise for the theory is that the left and right spheres
of the brain specialise in the kind of information the process. The left
hemisphere is primarily responsible for cognitive activities such as
reading, speaking and processing of information.
Regarding Low involvement products (are habitual products bought
without thought), the left side is supposed to be rational, active and
realistic.
The right side of the brain is concerned with non-verbal, timeless,
pictorial and holistic information. This side is emotional, metaphoric,
impulsive and intuitive.
High involvement products (expensive needs much thought)
The television is considered a high brain activity therefore low
involvement media (tv) whereas print media is a high involvement
media.
Passive processing is consistent with classical conditioning which
stress reputation of the advert to produce purchase behaviour.
Disturbance on the left side of the brain will have an impact on the
right side of the brain.
Question
a) Discus that difference between low and high involvement media.
b) How would you apply the knowledge of Hemispheral Laterization to the
design of television commercials and print adverts?
High involvement media
Stimulates the cognitive response through detailed processing
information.Stimulates the left side of the brain eg print media
of
Low involvement media
Stimulates the emotional and impulsive responses through pictorial adverts
Stimulates the right side of the bra in. eg electronic media.
Implications of Involvement Theory
It enables the marketer to choose the correct advert media for high or low
involvement products. For example fashion, the consumer requires a lot of
information to make a choice therefore it is advisable to have adverts in print
media.
For low involvement products, marketers can advertise in low involvement
media like the television because consumers learn passively since television
adverts are highly pictoral.
Types of consumer buying behavior are determined by:


Level of Involvement in purchase decision. Importance and intensity of
interest in a product in a particular situation.
Buyers level of involvement determines why he/she is motivated to seek
information about a certain products and brands but virtually ignores
others.
High involvement purchases--Honda Motorbike, high priced goods, products
visible to others, and the higher the risk the higher the involvement. Types of
risk:

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Personal risk
Social risk
Economic risk
Stages of the Consumer Buying Process
Six Stages to the Consumer Buying Decision Process (For complex decisions).
Actual purchasing is only one stage of the process. Not all decision processes
lead to a purchase. All consumer decisions do not always include all 6 stages,
determined by the degree of complexity...discussed next.
The 6 stages are:
1. Problem Recognition (awareness of need)--difference between the
desired state and the actual condition. Deficit in assortment of products.
Hunger--Food.
Hunger
stimulates
your
need
to
eat.
Can be stimulated by the marketer through product information--did not
know you were deficient? I.E., see a commercial for a new pair of shoes,
stimulates your recognition that you need a new pair of shoes.
2. Information search--
o
o
Internal search, memory.
External search if you need more information. Friends and
relatives (word of mouth). Marketer dominated sources;
comparison shopping; public sources etc.
A successful information search leaves a buyer with possible
alternatives, the evoked set.
Hungry, want to go out and eat, evoked set is
chinese food
o indian food
o burger king
o klondike kates etc
Evaluation of Alternatives--need to establish criteria for evaluation,
features the buyer wants or does not want. Rank/weight alternatives or
resume search. May decide that you want to eat something spicy, indian
getshighest
rank
etc.
If not satisfied with your choice then return to the search phase. Can you
think of another restaurant? Look in the yellow pages etc. Information
from different sources may be treated differently. Marketers try to
influence by "framing" alternatives.
Purchase decision--Choose buying alternative, includes product,
package, store, method of purchase etc.
Purchase--May differ from decision, time lapse between 4 & 5, product
availability.
Post-Purchase Evaluation--outcome: Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction.
Cognitive Dissonance, have you made the right decision. This can be
reduced by warranties, after sales communication etc.
After eating an indian meal, may think that really you wanted a chinese
meal instead
o
3.
4.
5.
6.
The marketing strategy is successful if marketers can see a need which a
companys product can solve and, offers the best solution to the problem. For a
successful strategy, the marketer must lay emphasis on the product/brand
image in the consumers mind. Position the product according to the customers
likes and dislikes. The brand which matches the desired image of a target
market sells well. Sales are important and sales are likely to occur if the initial
consumer analysis was correct and matches the consumer decision process.
Satisfaction of the consumer, after the sales have been effected, is important
for repeat purchase. It is more profitable to retain existing customers, rather
than looking for new ones.
Types of Consumer Buying Behavior
The four type of consumer buying behavior are:

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
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Routine Response/Programmed Behavior--buying low involvement
frequently purchased low cost items; need very little search and decision
effort; purchased almost automatically. Examples include soft drinks,
snack foods, milk etc.
Limited Decision Making--buying product occasionally. When you need
to obtain information about unfamiliar brand in a familiar product
category, perhaps. Requires a moderate amount of time for information
gathering. Examples include Clothes--know product class but not the
brand.
Extensive Decision Making/Complex high involvement, unfamiliar,
expensive and/or infrequently bought products. High degree of
economic/performance/psychological risk. Examples include cars,
homes, computers, education. Spend alot of time seeking information
and
deciding.
Information from the companies MM; friends and relatives, store
personnel etc. Go through all six stages of the buying process.
Impulse buying, no conscious planning.
The purchase of the same product does not always elicit the same Buying
Behavior. Product can shift from one category to the next .e.g
Going out for dinner for one person may be extensive decision making (for
someone that does not go out often at all), but limited decision making for
someone else. The reason for the dinner, whether it is an anniversary
celebration, or a meal with a couple of friends will also determine the extent of
the decision making.