Download The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method
What is the Scientific Method
 A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum
objectivity and consistency in researching a problem
 Requires precise preparation in developing useful research.
Five Basic Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating the hypothesis
Selecting the research design then collecting and analyzing
the data
Developing the conclusion
Example for Scientific Method:
access to postsecondary education
 Some people make great sacrifices and work hard to get a
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postsecondary education.
Some parents borrow money for their children’s tuition.
Some students work part-time while attending evening or
weekend classes.
But are these students and parents typical?
Or do people whose parents have higher incomes have higher
rates of university attendance?
Taking functionalist approach (but may change to other
perspectives)
1- Defining the problem
 State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate
 Interested in knowing how parents’ income relates their children’s
postsecondary education
 Must develop an operational definition of each concept being
studied
 Operational definition = an explanation of an abstract concept
that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept
 Two operational definitions: education and income (whether parents
with higher incomes have children who are more likely to attend a
postsecondary institution.
 Initially take the functionalist perspective and argue that
opportunities for postsecondary education are related to a parents’
income.
2- Reviewing the Literature
 Literature = the relevant scholarly studies and information
 Review allows researchers to define the problem under
study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting
data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes
 Examine the income of the parents of students in university
3-Formulating the Hypothesis
 After reviewing earlier research and drawing on the
contributions of sociological theorists, the researchers may
then formulate the hypothesis.
 Hypothesis = speculative statement about the relationship
between two or more factors known as variables.
 Variables = measurable trait or characteristic that is subject
to change under different conditions (ie. Income, religion,
occupation, and gender)
Formulating a Hypothesis continued…
 Researchers who formulate a hypothesis generally must suggest
how one aspect of human behaviour influences or affects another.
 The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another is called
the independent variable.
 The second variable is termed the dependent variable because
its action “depends” on the influence of the independent variable.
 Hypothesis = The higher their parents’ income, the more likely it is
that children go to university or college. The independent variable to
be measured is parents’ income levels. The variable thought to
depend on it – attendance at a postsecondary institution – must also
be measured.
Formulating Hypothesis continued…
 Indentifying independent and dependent variables is a critical
step in clarifying cause-and-effect relationships in society.
 Causal logic involves the relationship between a condition or
variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading
to the other.
Correlation
 A correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides
with a change in another variable.
 Correlations are indications that causality may be present;
they do not necessarily indicate causation.
 Sociologists seek to identify the causal link between variables;
this causal link is generally described by researchers in their
hypotheses.
4- Collecting and Analyzing Data
 How do you test a hypothesis to determine whether it is
supported or refuted?
 You need to collect information, using one of the research
designs which guides the researcher in collecting and
analyzing data.
Selecting the Sample
 Sample = selection from a larger population that is
statistically representative of that population
 Social scientists frequently use the random sample.
 Random sample = every member of an entire population
begin studied has the same chance of being selected.
 Advantage = do not need to question everyone in a
population
Ensuring Validity and Reliability
 The scientific method requires that research results be both
valid and reliable.
 Validity = the degree to which a measure or scale truly
reflects the phenomenon under study
 Reliability = the extent to which a measure produces
consistent results
 Problems arise when people to do not disclose accurate info
5-Developing the Conclusion
 Scientific studies, including those conducted by sociologists,
do not aim to answer all questions that can be raised about a
particular subject.
 Therefore, the conclusion of a research study represents both
an end and a beginning.
 It terminates a specific phase of the investigation, but it
should also generate ideas for future study.
Supporting the Hypotheses
 In some studies, the research will support the hypothesis.
 Found data to support hypothesis: People whose parents have higher
incomes have higher rates of postsecondary attendance.
 Not perfect: some people from families of lower incomes do attend
university
 Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the
original hypothesis.
 Many times the hypothesis is refuted, and researchers must
reformulate their conclusions.
 Unexpected results may also lead sociologists to reexamine their
methodology and make changes to their research design.