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Chapter 14
Social/Cognitive perspective: each person has a unique personality because of individual
interactions with the environment and the distinctive ways we think about the world and interpret
these interactions
Gender-Role behavior
Through a combination of operant conditioning and observational learning, boys tend to act like
other boys, and girls like other girls.
Researchers find that boys imitate male models instead of female models after they noticed that a
certain behavior is performed more by one gender than the other
Socialization process places pressure on us to take on the gender roles deemed appropriate by
society. Boys tend to act like other boys, and girls like other girls.
Masculinity-femininity A personality trait indicating the extent to which a person possesses sextyped characteristics, with masculine characteristics at one end of the trait continuum and
feminine characteristics at the other end.
Past research used this traditional model that viewed masculinity and femininity as polar
opposites.
The androgyny model: masculinity/femininity two independent traits---the most well-adjusted
people are those who are androgynous -that is, high in both masculinity and femininity.
Researchers sometimes find that a high masculinity score predicts high self-esteem, whereas a
high femininity score does not.
One explanation researchers give for this finding is that "masculine" items of the scale are more
positive and flattering than "feminine" items
Research supports a relationship between gender-type and interpersonal relations. Male and
female participants in one study were left alone to engage in a short conversation.
Researchers found the least active and least enjoyable conversations took place when the couple
consisted of a masculine male and a feminine female
Femininity is associated with happiness in relationships. Research finds that happiness with
relationship related to having a partner who is feminine or androgynous.
Explanation: Feminine people are better able than masculine people to express their feelings,
feminine people better able than masculine people to understand the feelings of others, and
feminine people communicate better than masculine people
Observational learning of aggression
Exposure to aggressive models has been shown by researchers to increase likelihood of acting
aggressively.
Bandura's four-step model explains why people sometimes imitate aggressive acts they see and
sometimes do not.
Before people imitate aggression, they must:
Attend to the act,
Recall what was seen,
have the opportunity to engage in the behavior, and
believe the aggression will lead to rewards.
According to Bandura's model, children can learn aggressive behaviors even when they are not
rewarded for engaging in the behavior
Children in one study were given an opportunity to imitate an aggressive model after watching a
videotape of the model. The researchers found that the aggressive behavior was most likely to be
imitated when the aggression was performed with a toy the child liked.
Expect children to be least likely to imitate an aggressive model if the model is punished for the
aggressive behavior
A large number of studies have examined the relationship between watching aggressive television
and acting aggressively—with some exceptions--- most of this research finds watching aggressive
television increases the likelihood of acting aggressively, at least under some circumstances
Bandura's model cannot account for all of these findings. Recent research suggests that the
violent cues presented in aggressive television programs prime aggressive memories that can then
trigger aggressive behavior
One study looked at the relationship between highly publicized boxing matches and homicide
rates. The researcher found that homicide rates increased a few days after the fight. Climate of
aggression and numerous aggressive cues present
Learned helplessness: A state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli
cannot be controlled—a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to
remedy the aversive circumstances, even if they actually can exert some influence.
The cognitive, motivational, and emotional deficits that follow a perceived lack of control over
important aversive events.
Original experiment---dogs placed in harness where exposed to electric shocks. Later dogs
placed in shuttle-box where experienced more shocks. Dogs exhibited learned helplessness failed
to escape shocks in shuttle-box.
People said to experience learned helplessness when generalize the inability to control one
aversive event to a situation they might be able to exert control.
Learned helplessness model---has been associated with depression.
Depression begins when people experience an inability to control important events in their
lives—one way to treat depression is to give depressed person successful experience at
controlling an important event.
Faced with repeated traumatic events over which they have no control, people come to feel
helpless, hopeless, and depressed. Their learned helplessness may result in passivity in later
situations where their efforts could make a difference.
Those who see setbacks as flukes rather than as signs of incompetence are likely to be more
persistent and successful.
Research done at nursing home looking at learned helplessness and control: one group able to
make many more choices in daily routine; second group not given choices.
Group given control and choices---more active and healthier when given additional control over
daily living events. Consistent with theory and research on learned helplessness.
Locus of Control
The most widely researched aspect of Julian Rotter's social learning theory is the idea of
individual differences in generalized expectancies, or locus of control.
Rotter: cognitive expectancies: (1) what you expect to happen following a specific behavior, and
(2) the value you attach to the outcome (reinforcement value); both influence whether you will
engage in the specific behavior
Locus of control refers to individuals’ beliefs about whether the outcomes of their actions depend
on what they do (internal control) or events outside their personal control (external control).
Faced with repeated traumatic events over which they have no control, people come to feel
helpless, hopeless, and depressed. Their learned helplessness may result in passivity in later
situations where their efforts could make a difference. Those who see setbacks as flukes rather
than as signs of incompetence are likely to be more persistent and successful.
Research done at nursing home looking at learned helplessness and control: one group able to
make many more choices in daily routine; second group not given choices. Group given control
and choices---more active and healthier when given additional control over daily living events.
Consistent with theory and research on learned helplessness.
Locus of Control
The most widely researched aspect of Rotter's social learning theory is the idea of individual
differences in generalized expectancies, or locus of control.
Locus of control refers to individuals’ beliefs about whether the outcomes of their actions depend
on what they do (internal control) or events outside their personal control (external control).
Sense of personal control affects feelings of freedom; contribute to sense of responsibility for
behavior and consequences, feel accountable for pursuing important objectives only if feel
competent to achieve them
One end of dimension is internals, who generally believe they control what happens to them.
believe they control own destiny.
Other end are externals, who generally think that what happens to them is under the control of
outside forces. believe that their fate is determined by chance or powerful others.
Example---students with internal locus of control believe their grades depend on study habits.
External locus of control—believe their grades depend on luck or teachers’ mood
People with internal locus of control tend to do well in school; exercise greater control over many
aspects of their life.
Research suggests people see selves as more internally controlled more likely to do following:
Experience higher levels job satisfaction
Cope better with stress
Delay gratification in order to achieve long-term goals
Show greater self control: Successfully stop smoking, wear seat belts, practice birth
control(rather than rely on fate) and to practice preventive dental care
Be happy
Show more control over internal world, and exercise more influence in social worlds. Achieve
more in school; more independent; deal with marital problems more directly, and more successful
in changing other’s opinions. Take charge in many areas of life and take on more responsibility.
External locus of control—avoid challenges, quit activities when faced with setbacks, receive
lower scores on achievement tests in high school. often suffer anxiety or depression.
What fosters internality?
Family environments characterized by warmth, protection, and nurturance
Consistent parental behavior—positively correlated with internal locus of control
People with limited access to social power or material resources often develop external
orientation.
Minority membership and lower socioeconomic status associated with external locus of control