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The Three Theories PSY331: Psychology of Learning Introduction Various psychological theories try to explain the complexities of learning that occurs in people and animals. Some theories believe that learning is acquired through particular experiences, situations and intervening factors. The three most significant theories that try to explain the acquirement of learning are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and neobehaviorism. These theories have varied approaches and proponents that explore the intricacies of the learning process. Classical conditioning, as an example, emphasizes that learning is acquired through the association between stimuli and responses. Operant conditioning, meanwhile, looks at the response and consequence to that response in order to acquire learning or behavioral change. These psychological theories have been developed by notable psychologists through the years. One such eminent psychologist was Ivan Pavlov, the proponent of the classical conditioning theory. As a whole, these three theories cover a wide scope in understanding how learning occurs in the society. It is of great importance to examine these three theories, their similar and contrasting principles, as they contribute greatly to how we view human behavior and learning. Classical conditioning Principles The classical conditioning theory attempts to explain the learning process by observing at various stimuli and their connection to responses. This theory states that a conditional stimulus, or any stimulus that is conditioned, triggers an unconditional stimulus, or any process that takes place instinctively. Classical conditioning argues that a stimulus that is manipulated precedes a stimulus that occurs naturally, or any behavior that is conditional may induce any behavior that naturally takes place. For instance, a person who is constantly exposed to heat, a conditional stimulus, will lead to sweating, an activity which occurs naturally due to the presence of the conditional stimulus. Theorists Ivan Pavlov is an eminent physiologist that laid the foundations of the classical conditioning theory. He studied how learning is acquired by experimenting on dogs. He noticed that dogs would drool whenever food was offered. He tested whether a conditional stimulus will trigger an unconditional stimulus, in this case the dogs salivating for food. He introduced a conditional stimulus, or the ringing of bells, as he offered food to the dogs. Through repetition of this procedure, the dogs began to associate the ringing of bells with the food. Thus, whenever Pavlov would ring the bell, even though no food was offered, the dogs would salivate, proving that a conditional stimulus could lead to an unconditional stimulus. Mental Processes The classical conditioning theory plays a significant role in explaining the learning process. According to the theory, learning is acquired when people and animals are introduced to certain stimuli. Our mental faculties serves as the repository of unconditional stimuli, whereas conditional stimuli are introduced to people and animals through teaching or conditioning. As an example, a student is able to answer an arithmetic problem by listening to the lecture of his/her teacher in the classroom. Thus, teaching (conditional stimulus) is introduced to the student so he learns to answer certain arithmetic problems. As the student is repeatedly exposed to the conditional stimuli, it leads to naturally occurring stimuli such as comprehension and intellect. Thus, classical condition theory provides a foundation in understanding mental processes. Experience The classical conditioning theory looks at prior experiences to have a better grasp of how learning is acquired. The theory states that after constant repetition of a particular experience or stimulus lead to the acquirement of learning or the association between two stimuli. As such, a person’s behavioral pattern can be examined by looking at his/her prior experiences and what processes and stimuli have been constantly introduced to the person. Behavior is a significant factor in the learning process, and this will aid in conditioning stimuli that will facilitate behavioral change in an individual. Permanent Change The classical conditioning theory states that continuous exposure of a stimulus to a person will lead to permanent behavioral change. As a stimulus or experience is repeatedly introduced to a subject, he/she is conditioned to respond to the stimulus involuntarily which means that his actions are already a product of conditioning and will function as long as the stimulus is present. In Pavlov’s research, he observed that the dogs salivated whenever they hear the bell because the activity was done repeatedly and continuously. The result is similar to human beings, wherein they acquire learning through prior experience. As an example, a student becomes skillful in any subject through repeated reading and studying. Application Instances of classical conditioning theory can be observed in the society. In schools, teachers prompt students to perform better by employing various conditional stimuli. Teachers may introduce punishment to deter unfavorable behavior. In marketplaces, classical conditioning is also evident. Due to the general population’s prior experience with using a certain product or brand, they would continue to buy that product even after a price increase. Medical practitioners also utilize this theory by continuous presentation of conditioned stimuli to facilitate learning. Doctors train amputees through regular exercise with artificial limbs to make them comfortable with the setup. Operant Conditioning Principles Operant conditioning theory is another significant theory that deals with how learning is acquired and how behavioral change is achieved. Operant conditioning argues that a behavior draws out a consequence to that behavior which influences behavioral change. These consequences or modifications either strengthen or inhibit the behavior. These consequences could come either as rewards or punishments and form the central concept in operant conditioning theory. Rewards are positive consequences that strengthen a particular action or behavior, while punishments are negative consequences that weaken the particular behavior. The theory states that reward and punishments are further classified as to whether they are positive or negative: positive refers to the presentation of a stimulus that will promote or condemn the behavior, while negative refers to the removal of a stimulus to facilitate behavioral change. The theory also states that these consequences elicit permanent modifications in the person’s behavioral pattern. Theorists B. Skinner developed the framework of the operant conditioning theory. His research findings showed that there is a connection between a consequence to a response and the response and this affects modification of behavior. In order to study this, Skinner used rats to show that learning can be acquired when a subject forms an association between reinforcement or punishment and a certain behavior. Skinner placed rats in a box which contained a lever. Whenever the rats accidentally knock this lever, a food pellet would drop on the side of the lever. The rats learned that knocking the lever (the behavior) would bring food (the reward for the behavior) and in time they developed this habit after being put in the box several times. Skinner also used pigeons to explain the concepts of the operant conditioning theory. Mental processes Operant conditioning depends on mental processes, as humans and animals learn, through analysis and decision making, that certain behavior can either trigger reinforcements or punishments. Through repetition and forming of association between the response and consequence to the response, mental processes modify behavioral patterns to gravitate towards actions that result to reinforcements and avoid actions that result to punishments. However, a continuous occurrence of the reinforcement or punishment is necessary for learning to be acquired. Furthermore, partial reinforcements induce permanent change in the learning process. Experience Both the classical conditioning and the operant conditioning theories support that prior experience contributes to the learning process. Through prior experience, people and animals develop an association between a certain behavior and a consequence to that behavior, thus determining whether a habit will be formed, strengthened, or dismissed. According to the operant conditioning theory, responses with positive consequences will be adopted while responses with negative consequences will be avoided. Looking at the Skinner’s research, rats developed the habit of knocking the lever because prior experience told them that that particular habit will result to favorable consequences. Permanent Change Operant conditioning theory maintains that permanent change in behavior occurs as individuals experience rewards and punishments for certain behavior. According to the theory, reinforcement compels an individual to modify their behavior. Moreover, partial reinforcement, or reinforcement that is applied only part of the time, increases the probability that the modified behavior will be resistant to discontinuation. Individuals that experience partial reinforcement lead to behavioral change for a longer period of time, but it produces a steadier rate of change over time. Reinforcements and punishments are essential determiners of behavioral patterns. As individuals develop the association between the behavior and the consequences to the particular behavior, habits are formed and dissolved. Application There are numerous manifestations of operant conditioning at work in the society. Operant conditioning posits that rewards and punishments could be the reason why people and animals behave differently. The concepts in the theory provide the basis in order to understand these behavioral patterns. In schools, teachers employ operant conditioning to stimulate learning in the classroom. Students receive high grades as a result of excellent academic performance. Teachers also hand out disciplinary measures to students as a result of negative behavior. In the workplace, merchandisers employ marketing strategies such as discount cards in order to attract the general population. Neobehaviorism Principles The concepts of neobehavorism are lifted primarily from logical positivism and behaviorism, emphasizing the role of empirical observation and quantifiable facts in understanding the learning process. However, neobehavorism branches off from behaviorism with its reluctance to use descriptive models. Neobehavorism argues that objective information can only be observed by using nonhuman organisms in experiments. It eliminates immaterial notions such as free will, as well as subjective thoughts and emotions which cannot be controlled, allowing researchers to focus on observed evidences as bases of conclusion. Its proponents maintain that human beings are dependent upon various environmental and biological factors which may skew findings, hence the use of empirical evidences to explain the learning process. Theorists Edward Tolman, B.F. Skinner, and Clark Hall are the most notable psychologists that laid the basic principles of neobehaviorism. Edward Tolman postulated that purpose is essential to behavior and as long as this purpose has not been successfully met, the behavior continues to persist. Clark Hull, another neobehaviorist, argues that individuals avoid a particular behavior due to repeated exposure to the behavior’s reinforcement, in direct contradiction to the operant conditioning theory. B.F. Skinner, another notable psychologist, rejected Clark Hull’s theory building with his famous Skinner box experiment. Through the experiment, Skinner suggested that people and animals acquire learning through reinforcement and punishment that were the result of past behavior. Mental Processes Neobehaviorism posits that mental processes do not facilitate learning. According to the theory, behavior and not mental state is the driver for behavioral modification. Because the theory supports empirical observation, it limits mental processes as internal attributes of human beings that are subject to heredity and environment, hence unobservable and unquantifiable. Experience According to the neobehvaiorism theory, environmental variables factor in to the learning process. Clark Hull theorized that the association between individuals and their environment lead to behavioral change. As such, neobehaviorists do not focus on prior experiences as determinants of behavior. Furthermore, individuals perform certain behavior as long as the purpose is present and once the purpose is gone, the behavior ceases to exist. Permanent Change The neobehaviorism theory postulates that permanent change in behavior happens only if people and animals cannot find substitute behavior and that individuals do not consciously try to change their behavior. Because of this, behavioral change only happens in specific circumstances. Skinner modified this theory by suggesting that permanent change in behavior can occur by introducing reinforcements and through past experience. Application Although the neobehaviorism theory was popular in the mid-20th century, its popularity decreased with the introduction of other psychological theories and, as such, evidences of the theory at work in the current society are minimal. Its main applications can be found in the academe through research studies. Comparisons Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and neobehaviorism theories share similar concepts that explain the learning process. Some of these similarities are the significance of prior experience to the modification of behavior as well as the processes that facilitate permanent change in individual’s behavior. These concepts are significant factors in identifying change in behavior. Variables such as reinforcement, punishment, and inherent traits are important determinants in the learning process of an individual. The three theories also employed scientific observation to test the reliability of their theories. Ivan Pavlov, for example, developed the basic principles for classical conditioning theory with his experiment to dogs. B. Skinner, meanwhile, developed the foundation for operant conditioning theory by experimenting on rats and pigeons. Clark Hull developed the concepts of neobehaviorism through empirical observation. Differences The three theories diverge into different branches as they try to explain the important components that make up the learning process. Classical conditioning focuses on the function of various stimuli to influence behavioral change, while operant conditioning targets modifications such as reinforcement and punishment as the central factors that affect the acquirement of learning. Meanwhile, neobehaviorism discounts inherent and unquantifiable factors and mainly concentrates on observable evidences as determinants of behavioral change. The theories also differ in their approach towards the acquirement of learning. To proponents of classical conditioning, continuous exposure to stimulus leads to learning, whereas proponents of operant conditioning believe that learning is acquired through repetition of the behavior. Conclusion Through analysis of the three main psychological theories of learning, we understand that the learning process is directly affected by behavior and its changes and modifications. According to the classical conditioning theory, a conditional stimulus (stimulus that is manipulated) will trigger an unconditional stimulus (any stimulus that takes place naturally). In operant conditioning theory, behavioral change is achieved when association is applied between certain behavior and its modifications such as reinforcement and punishment. These modifications or consequences to the behavior are dependent on the type of desired change. Positive consequences are employed to promote the behavior while negative consequences are applied to discourage the behavior. Neobehaviorism, on the other hand, gives importance to the function of observable evidence in formulating concepts that explain the learning process and behavioral change. Although the theory is a relative of behaviorism, it branches off from the latter with its reluctance to use descriptive models. Prior experience is a significant factor that influences behavior according to the operant conditioning theory. Behavioral change in people and animals occur because of consequences to the behavior that they experienced in the past. Through experience, individuals are able to identify whether the particular behavior should be sustained or discontinued. These various concepts of human behavior are significant factors in explaining the learning process.