Download The Three Theories PSY331: Psychology of Learning Introduction

The Three Theories
PSY331: Psychology of Learning
Introduction
Various psychological theories try to explain the complexities of learning that occurs in
people and animals. Some theories believe that learning is acquired through particular
experiences, situations and intervening factors. The three most significant theories that try
to explain the acquirement of learning are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
neobehaviorism. These theories have varied approaches and proponents that explore the
intricacies of the learning process. Classical conditioning, as an example, emphasizes that
learning is acquired through the association between stimuli and responses. Operant
conditioning, meanwhile, looks at the response and consequence to that response in order
to acquire learning or behavioral change. These psychological theories have been
developed by notable psychologists through the years. One such eminent psychologist was
Ivan Pavlov, the proponent of the classical conditioning theory. As a whole, these three
theories cover a wide scope in understanding how learning occurs in the society. It is of
great importance to examine these three theories, their similar and contrasting principles,
as they contribute greatly to how we view human behavior and learning.
Classical conditioning
Principles
The classical conditioning theory attempts to explain the learning process by observing at
various stimuli and their connection to responses. This theory states that a conditional
stimulus, or any stimulus that is conditioned, triggers an unconditional stimulus, or any
process that takes place instinctively. Classical conditioning argues that a stimulus that is
manipulated precedes a stimulus that occurs naturally, or any behavior that is conditional
may induce any behavior that naturally takes place. For instance, a person who is
constantly exposed to heat, a conditional stimulus, will lead to sweating, an activity which
occurs naturally due to the presence of the conditional stimulus.
Theorists
Ivan Pavlov is an eminent physiologist that laid the foundations of the classical
conditioning theory. He studied how learning is acquired by experimenting on dogs. He
noticed that dogs would drool whenever food was offered. He tested whether a conditional
stimulus will trigger an unconditional stimulus, in this case the dogs salivating for food. He
introduced a conditional stimulus, or the ringing of bells, as he offered food to the dogs.
Through repetition of this procedure, the dogs began to associate the ringing of bells with
the food. Thus, whenever Pavlov would ring the bell, even though no food was offered, the
dogs would salivate, proving that a conditional stimulus could lead to an unconditional
stimulus.
Mental Processes
The classical conditioning theory plays a significant role in explaining the learning process.
According to the theory, learning is acquired when people and animals are introduced to
certain stimuli. Our mental faculties serves as the repository of unconditional stimuli,
whereas conditional stimuli are introduced to people and animals through teaching or
conditioning. As an example, a student is able to answer an arithmetic problem by listening
to the lecture of his/her teacher in the classroom. Thus, teaching (conditional stimulus) is
introduced to the student so he learns to answer certain arithmetic problems. As the
student is repeatedly exposed to the conditional stimuli, it leads to naturally occurring
stimuli such as comprehension and intellect. Thus, classical condition theory provides a
foundation in understanding mental processes.
Experience
The classical conditioning theory looks at prior experiences to have a better grasp of how
learning is acquired. The theory states that after constant repetition of a particular
experience or stimulus lead to the acquirement of learning or the association between two
stimuli. As such, a person’s behavioral pattern can be examined by looking at his/her prior
experiences and what processes and stimuli have been constantly introduced to the
person. Behavior is a significant factor in the learning process, and this will aid in
conditioning stimuli that will facilitate behavioral change in an individual.
Permanent Change
The classical conditioning theory states that continuous exposure of a stimulus to a person
will lead to permanent behavioral change. As a stimulus or experience is repeatedly
introduced to a subject, he/she is conditioned to respond to the stimulus involuntarily
which means that his actions are already a product of conditioning and will function as long
as the stimulus is present. In Pavlov’s research, he observed that the dogs salivated
whenever they hear the bell because the activity was done repeatedly and continuously.
The result is similar to human beings, wherein they acquire learning through prior
experience. As an example, a student becomes skillful in any subject through repeated
reading and studying.
Application
Instances of classical conditioning theory can be observed in the society. In schools,
teachers prompt students to perform better by employing various conditional stimuli.
Teachers may introduce punishment to deter unfavorable behavior. In marketplaces,
classical conditioning is also evident. Due to the general population’s prior experience with
using a certain product or brand, they would continue to buy that product even after a
price increase. Medical practitioners also utilize this theory by continuous presentation of
conditioned stimuli to facilitate learning. Doctors train amputees through regular exercise
with artificial limbs to make them comfortable with the setup.
Operant Conditioning
Principles
Operant conditioning theory is another significant theory that deals with how learning is
acquired and how behavioral change is achieved. Operant conditioning argues that a
behavior draws out a consequence to that behavior which influences behavioral change.
These consequences or modifications either strengthen or inhibit the behavior. These
consequences could come either as rewards or punishments and form the central concept
in operant conditioning theory. Rewards are positive consequences that strengthen a
particular action or behavior, while punishments are negative consequences that weaken
the particular behavior. The theory states that reward and punishments are further
classified as to whether they are positive or negative: positive refers to the presentation of
a stimulus that will promote or condemn the behavior, while negative refers to the removal
of a stimulus to facilitate behavioral change. The theory also states that these consequences
elicit permanent modifications in the person’s behavioral pattern.
Theorists
B. Skinner developed the framework of the operant conditioning theory. His research
findings showed that there is a connection between a consequence to a response and the
response and this affects modification of behavior. In order to study this, Skinner used rats
to show that learning can be acquired when a subject forms an association between
reinforcement or punishment and a certain behavior. Skinner placed rats in a box which
contained a lever. Whenever the rats accidentally knock this lever, a food pellet would drop
on the side of the lever. The rats learned that knocking the lever (the behavior) would bring
food (the reward for the behavior) and in time they developed this habit after being put in
the box several times. Skinner also used pigeons to explain the concepts of the operant
conditioning theory.
Mental processes
Operant conditioning depends on mental processes, as humans and animals learn, through
analysis and decision making, that certain behavior can either trigger reinforcements or
punishments. Through repetition and forming of association between the response and
consequence to the response, mental processes modify behavioral patterns to gravitate
towards actions that result to reinforcements and avoid actions that result to punishments.
However, a continuous occurrence of the reinforcement or punishment is necessary for
learning to be acquired. Furthermore, partial reinforcements induce permanent change in
the learning process.
Experience
Both the classical conditioning and the operant conditioning theories support that prior
experience contributes to the learning process. Through prior experience, people and
animals develop an association between a certain behavior and a consequence to that
behavior, thus determining whether a habit will be formed, strengthened, or dismissed.
According to the operant conditioning theory, responses with positive consequences will
be adopted while responses with negative consequences will be avoided. Looking at the
Skinner’s research, rats developed the habit of knocking the lever because prior experience
told them that that particular habit will result to favorable consequences.
Permanent Change
Operant conditioning theory maintains that permanent change in behavior occurs as
individuals experience rewards and punishments for certain behavior. According to the
theory, reinforcement compels an individual to modify their behavior. Moreover, partial
reinforcement, or reinforcement that is applied only part of the time, increases the
probability that the modified behavior will be resistant to discontinuation. Individuals that
experience partial reinforcement lead to behavioral change for a longer period of time, but
it produces a steadier rate of change over time. Reinforcements and punishments are
essential determiners of behavioral patterns. As individuals develop the association
between the behavior and the consequences to the particular behavior, habits are formed
and dissolved.
Application
There are numerous manifestations of operant conditioning at work in the society. Operant
conditioning posits that rewards and punishments could be the reason why people and
animals behave differently. The concepts in the theory provide the basis in order to
understand these behavioral patterns. In schools, teachers employ operant conditioning to
stimulate learning in the classroom. Students receive high grades as a result of excellent
academic performance. Teachers also hand out disciplinary measures to students as a
result of negative behavior. In the workplace, merchandisers employ marketing strategies
such as discount cards in order to attract the general population.
Neobehaviorism
Principles
The concepts of neobehavorism are lifted primarily from logical positivism and
behaviorism, emphasizing the role of empirical observation and quantifiable facts in
understanding the learning process. However, neobehavorism branches off from
behaviorism with its reluctance to use descriptive models. Neobehavorism argues that
objective information can only be observed by using nonhuman organisms in experiments.
It eliminates immaterial notions such as free will, as well as subjective thoughts and
emotions which cannot be controlled, allowing researchers to focus on observed evidences
as bases of conclusion. Its proponents maintain that human beings are dependent upon
various environmental and biological factors which may skew findings, hence the use of
empirical evidences to explain the learning process.
Theorists
Edward Tolman, B.F. Skinner, and Clark Hall are the most notable psychologists that laid
the basic principles of neobehaviorism. Edward Tolman postulated that purpose is
essential to behavior and as long as this purpose has not been successfully met, the
behavior continues to persist. Clark Hull, another neobehaviorist, argues that individuals
avoid a particular behavior due to repeated exposure to the behavior’s reinforcement, in
direct contradiction to the operant conditioning theory. B.F. Skinner, another notable
psychologist, rejected Clark Hull’s theory building with his famous Skinner box experiment.
Through the experiment, Skinner suggested that people and animals acquire learning
through reinforcement and punishment that were the result of past behavior.
Mental Processes
Neobehaviorism posits that mental processes do not facilitate learning. According to the
theory, behavior and not mental state is the driver for behavioral modification. Because the
theory supports empirical observation, it limits mental processes as internal attributes of
human beings that are subject to heredity and environment, hence unobservable and
unquantifiable.
Experience
According to the neobehvaiorism theory, environmental variables factor in to the learning
process. Clark Hull theorized that the association between individuals and their
environment lead to behavioral change. As such, neobehaviorists do not focus on prior
experiences as determinants of behavior. Furthermore, individuals perform certain
behavior as long as the purpose is present and once the purpose is gone, the behavior
ceases to exist.
Permanent Change
The neobehaviorism theory postulates that permanent change in behavior happens only if
people and animals cannot find substitute behavior and that individuals do not consciously
try to change their behavior. Because of this, behavioral change only happens in specific
circumstances. Skinner modified this theory by suggesting that permanent change in
behavior can occur by introducing reinforcements and through past experience.
Application
Although the neobehaviorism theory was popular in the mid-20th century, its popularity
decreased with the introduction of other psychological theories and, as such, evidences of
the theory at work in the current society are minimal. Its main applications can be found in
the academe through research studies.
Comparisons
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and neobehaviorism theories share similar
concepts that explain the learning process. Some of these similarities are the significance of
prior experience to the modification of behavior as well as the processes that facilitate
permanent change in individual’s behavior. These concepts are significant factors in
identifying change in behavior. Variables such as reinforcement, punishment, and inherent
traits are important determinants in the learning process of an individual. The three
theories also employed scientific observation to test the reliability of their theories. Ivan
Pavlov, for example, developed the basic principles for classical conditioning theory with
his experiment to dogs. B. Skinner, meanwhile, developed the foundation for operant
conditioning theory by experimenting on rats and pigeons. Clark Hull developed the
concepts of neobehaviorism through empirical observation.
Differences
The three theories diverge into different branches as they try to explain the important
components that make up the learning process. Classical conditioning focuses on the
function of various stimuli to influence behavioral change, while operant conditioning
targets modifications such as reinforcement and punishment as the central factors that
affect the acquirement of learning. Meanwhile, neobehaviorism discounts inherent and
unquantifiable factors and mainly concentrates on observable evidences as determinants of
behavioral change. The theories also differ in their approach towards the acquirement of
learning. To proponents of classical conditioning, continuous exposure to stimulus leads to
learning, whereas proponents of operant conditioning believe that learning is acquired
through repetition of the behavior.
Conclusion
Through analysis of the three main psychological theories of learning, we understand that
the learning process is directly affected by behavior and its changes and modifications.
According to the classical conditioning theory, a conditional stimulus (stimulus that is
manipulated) will trigger an unconditional stimulus (any stimulus that takes place
naturally).
In operant conditioning theory, behavioral change is achieved when association is applied
between certain behavior and its modifications such as reinforcement and punishment.
These modifications or consequences to the behavior are dependent on the type of desired
change. Positive consequences are employed to promote the behavior while negative
consequences are applied to discourage the behavior.
Neobehaviorism, on the other hand, gives importance to the function of observable
evidence in formulating concepts that explain the learning process and behavioral change.
Although the theory is a relative of behaviorism, it branches off from the latter with its
reluctance to use descriptive models.
Prior experience is a significant factor that influences behavior according to the operant
conditioning theory. Behavioral change in people and animals occur because of
consequences to the behavior that they experienced in the past. Through experience,
individuals are able to identify whether the particular behavior should be sustained or
discontinued. These various concepts of human behavior are significant factors in
explaining the learning process.