Download US Foreign Policy: Imperialism and World War I Since America itself

 U.S. Foreign Policy: Imperialism and World War I Since America itself began in revolt against an imperial power, many Americans were critical of the idea of building an American empire overseas. Expansionism, however, had long been a part of American policies. Fueled by a belief in its Manifest Destiny (a belief that American possessed a god‐given right to rule North America), throughout the 1800s American settlers expanded westward towards California. But as the 1800s came to a close, American expansion had reached all the way to the Pacific and had no where else to go on the American mainland. This “closing of the American frontier” as it became known corresponded with the era of the New Imperialism in Europe. Many American leaders, driven by the same motives as their European counterparts, began to call for overseas expansion. The Industrial Revolution, with its rise in production, created the need to find new markets and new resources to further feed U.S. industrial expansion. Reflecting its earlier belief in Manifest Destiny and the concept of the “White Man’s Burden,” many Americans also felt it had a duty to spread its culture to “inferior” peoples. The publication of Alfred Thayer Mahan’s influential book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660‐1783, also stressed the need for Americans to build a powerful navy and acquire naval bases overseas. Motivated by the above factors, America engaged in the following acts of imperialism: ¾ Hawaii. Hawaii was prized by American expansionists for two reasons: its rich sugarcane plantations and its ability to provide a naval base in the Pacific (later to become Pearl Harbor). After aiding an attempt by planters to overthrow Hawaii’s Queen Liliuokalani, the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898 and it became a state in 1959. ¾ Japan. In 1852, Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Tokyo Bay to ”open” Japan to trade. Under the threat of bombardment from superior American firepower, Japan was forced to open two ports to American trade. The U.S. was not fully able to pursue its interests in Japan because of the outbreak of the Civil War, but the coming of America to Japan had profound impact on the Japanese: it set in motion a series of modernizations that allowed Japan itself to become an imperial power. ¾ China. The Western powers had long sought access to China’s enormous resources and markets. In the late 1800s, China had been divided into “spheres of influence,” in each of which different European nations and Japan controlled economic development and trade. U.S. Secretary of State John Hay, however, also wished for the United States to gain access to China’s markets and resources. John Hay developed the Open Door Policy, according to which all nations received equal access to trade with China. ¾ The Spanish‐American War. America’s first large scale imperial conflict was with Spain. On the surface, America supported Cuba’s revolutionary war against Spain, but America’s involvement reflected its growing commercial interests in the Caribbean. Since American businesses had invested approximately $50 million in Cuba’s railroads, mines, and sugar cane plantations, President William McKinley was concerned with keeping the situation in Cuba stable. Events, however, would push McKinley towards a more dramatic course of action. Angered by the reports of yellow journalists, who exaggerated and invented atrocities committed by Spanish forces, an increasing number of Americans called for intervention to support the Cubans. The publication of a letter written by the Spanish ambassador in Washington insulting President McKinley further increased feelings of hostility towards Spain. But the key event in pushing America into the Spanish‐American War was the explosion of the USS Maine which resulted in the death of 266 American sailors. Although the ultimate cause of the explosion has never been discovered, the press and many Americans blamed Spain and within a few weeks Spain and America were at war. America’s victory in the Spanish American War firmly established its place as an imperial power. As a result of its victory in the war, America gained control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Although Cuba was technically granted its independence, the United States continued to exert a great deal of political and economic control over Cuba. ¾ Latin America and the Panama Canal. In the late 1800s, America had begun to attempt to exert its influence in Latin America. The U.S. wished to open up the markets of Latin America to American businesses (most Latin Americans had bought their goods from Europe), and to keep Europe from meddling in the affairs of the region. These early efforts of U.S. Secretary of State James Blaine did result in the creation of the Pan‐American Union, later to become the Organization of American States. America’s presence in the Pacific, however, would become characterized by the more aggressive policies of President Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt, the most imperialistic of all U.S. presidents, in 1904 boldly proclaimed what became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: the U.S. would intervene in the affairs of nations of the Western hemisphere to promote and preserve economic and political stability. No other event illustrates the more aggressive approach to U.S. foreign policy than Roosevelt’s acquisition of land for the building of the Panama Canal. Military leaders and businessmen had long sought the building of a canal across Central America, since it would greatly reduce the time needed to transport troops or goods between the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. After the Columbian government (which ruled Panama) refused the United States’ offer to buy the land for the canal (the U.S. offered $10 million and an annual rent of $250,000), Roosevelt sent U.S. troops to prevent the Colombian government from preventing an uprising for Panamanian independence. Shortly after the success of the revolution, the U.S. negotiated a treaty with the new Panamanian government to allow for the construction of the canal. U.S. Involvement in World War I World War I broke out in Europe in the summer of 1914. While many Americans, especially recent immigrants from Europe, held strong opinions about the conflict, most Americans preferred to remain neutral and uninvolved in the overseas conflict. Woodrow Wilson even won a presidential election largely to the success of a campaign which promised to keep America out of the war. Events, however, would slowly push America to become involved in the conflict on the side of the Allies. No two events pushed America towards war more than Germany’s renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare and the decipherment of the Zimmerman Telegram. ¾ Germany’s renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare. Relying on its powerful navy, Great Britain attempted to place on economic stranglehold on Germany. By stopping merchant ships and by placing land mines in the North Sea, Britain was able to greatly halt the supply of goods that once flowed into Germany and greatly decreased its ability to wage war. A new weapon, however, allowed the Germans to challenge the effectiveness of the naval blockade. The German u‐boat (short for Unterseeboot, “underwaterboat”) gave the Germans the ability to sink British ships by surprise. The Germans, desperate because they had failed to win a quick victory on land, also hoped that the u‐boat would allow them to sink merchant ships carrying valuable goods to Britain, France, and the other Allied powers. In early 1915, Germany declared the waters surrounding Great Britain a war‐zone and warned all enemy merchant ships would be sunk. Matters came to a head with the sinking of the Lusitania on May 7, 1915, a passenger liner carrying 1,200 passengers, 128 of which were Americans (the Lusitania actually was carrying weaponry – Britain had begun to transport military supplies on civilian transports to keep them from being sunk by u‐boats). While the sinking of the Lusitainia did not push America into the war, it sparked outrage and pushed them closer to entering the war on the side of the Allies. The sinking of the French passenger liner the Sussex in March of 1916 pushed America even closer to the brink of involvement. But realizing that U.S. involvement in the war would give the Allies an enormous advantage, the Germans promised to stop shooting down merchant ships by surprise (“the Sussex Pledge.”) In February of 1917, however, Germany announced its renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare, causing the United States to cut diplomatic ties with Germany. ¾ The Decipherment of the Zimmerman Telegram. Already on the brink of entering the war, the decipherment of the Zimmerman Telegram pushed America over the edge. The German foreign minister, wishing to keep America’s forces occupied at home, sent a telegram to the German ambassador in Mexico instructing him to persuade Mexico to declare war on the U.S. in the event of war between the U.S. and Germany. In return for its actions, Mexico would receive its lost territories of California, Texas, and New Mexico. British intelligence, far superior to any in the world at the time, intercepted the telegram and successfully leaked a decoded version to the American press. The public outrage was enormous, and on April 2, 1917 President Woodrow Wilson successfully asked Congress for a declaration of war on Germany. America’s Role After World War I: The Fourteen Points and The League of Nations America’s entry in the war pushed the tide of battle in favor of the Allies and led to its eventual victory. America’s role in the war cemented its place amongst the most powerful nations in the world: industry boomed during the war, and America’s land and resources were untouched during the conflict. Yet America was not yet ready to take on its role as a global superpower. A belief in isolationism, the wish to stay uninvolved in Europe’s affairs, won out in the end. Despite Wilson’s grand vision of America playing a leading role in establishing peace in Europe, the U.S. failed to ratify the treaty that ended World War I and failed to join the international peace keeping organization Wislon himself had proposed. The following were significant events in the role of the U.S. in the peace settlement after World War I: ¾ The Fourteen Points. Woodrow Wilson personally traveled to Paris to help negotiate the terms of the peace. Wilson held high ideals for lasting peace, and Wilson was greeted by enthusiastic crowds throughout Europe who supported his vision. Wilson spelled out for his ideals for a lasting peace in a document known as the Fourteen Points. Directly designed to address what Wilson and others had felt caused the war, the Fourteen Points embraced a number of ideals: the need for disarmament, the elimination of secret agreements, and the rights of nations to self‐determination (the belief that people who share the same national origins should live within the same boundaries and choose their own government). ¾ The League of Nations. While Wilson and others enthusiastically embraced the above principles, it was the last of Wilson’s Fourteen Points that became his obsession. The last of the Fourteen Points called for the creation of an international peace keeping organization that would peacefully resolve disputes. Wilson successfully convinced the Allies to form the League of Nations, whose goal would be to resolve international disputes peacefully. Although the Allies went along with Wilson’s dream of a League of Nations, the final terms of the Treaty of Versailles did not reflect Wilson’s high ideals. Under pressure from citizens at home, Britain and France produced a treaty that was more concerned with punishing Germany. Already disheartened by the harsh terms of the treaty, Wilson returned home to even more disappointment some of which he brought upon himself. According to the U.S. Constitution, the President negotiates treaties but they are subject to ratification (approval) by the U.S. conference. Wilson had remained stubborn on the issue of the peace terms, not bringing any Republicans to the negotiations and refusing to compromise when the Senate raised concerns about the treaty. The most serious concern was that the treaty would draw the United States into overseas conflicts in which the U.S. had no interest in becoming involved. The U.S. was not yet ready to embrace its role as an international superpower, preferring to withdraw from the affairs of Europe and to focus on domestic concerns.