Download 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Literature Review

Chapter..2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, review on the work carried out by various researches is
presented in the form of literature survey. This chapter covers a comprehensive
general and specific literature survey on Stefan-Boltzmann constant of black body
radiation. Many studies have been carried out by Researchers and Scientists to
understand and describe the Stefan-Boltzmann constant of black body radiation. By
going through the literature, the topic for the present study has been identified.
2.2 Literature Review
W.W.Coblentz [1] describes that using thermopile detectors, Coblenz was able
to measure the radiation constants to within 0.5% of their presently accepted values.
His results for the Stefan-Boltzmann constant was within 1% of its present value, and
the work Coblenz performed in the Stefan-Boltzmann and other blackbody studies
was the progenitor of the detector development used in the visual photometry efforts.
C.E. Mendenhall [2] describes a new method of measuring the constant σ is
described in which the radiation energy is measured in terms of electrical input. The
results of the study of various possible sources of error are discussed quantitatively.
The resulting value of σ is 5.79 X 10-12 watts.cm-2 deg-4.
I.R.Edmond [3] presents the low wattage bulb in a Wheatstone bridge setup
with the associated battery power pack for dc power supply is used. From the
hardware the voltage and current are measured. The parameter, cold resistance of the
filament is determined from the extrapolating R against I to zero. Temperature of the
filament is calculated from a linear relation Rt = Ro [1+α (Tt –To)]. The graph of log P
Vs log T is used for verification of Stefan’s law.
W.R. Blevin and W.J. Browm [4] describe that the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
has been evaluated by using an absolute radiometer of the electrical substitution type
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to measure the radiance of a cavity radiator at the freezing- point of gold. The value
obtained for σ, based on the IPTS-68 value 1337.58±0.20 K for TAu, is
(5.6644±0.0075) X 10-8 W m-2 K-4. Unlike most earlier experimental values, this
results is not inconsistent with the theoretical value of (5.6696±0.0025) X 10-8 W m-2
K-4 calculated from the present best values of c, h, and k.
Alternatively, the
experiment may be regarded as a radiometric determination of the gold- point based
on the theoretical value for σ, the result then being TAu = 133727± 0.40 K. This value
is 0.31 K below the IPTS-68 value, derived by gas thermometry.
Wray E.M [5] describes that tungsten bulb is used in a simple ammetervoltmeter setup which includes an autotransformer. From the hardware the reading of
V and I are measured. From the reading of V and I, resistance of the filament and
power dissipated are measured. Ro and To are determined by extrapolating filament
resistance to zero power dissipation. Temperature of the filament is calculated from a
linear relation Rt = Ro [1+α (Tt –To)]. The graph of log P vs log T is used for
verification of Stefan’s law.
Rita and Prasad [6] describe that commercially available electric lamps are
used in a laboratory experiment for the verification of Stefan’s law. Assuming that
the emissivity of tungsten filament remains constant and that all the filament power
goes out as radiation, Stefan’s T4 law can be verified from a log-log plot of radiation
power p against temperature T of the filament. It is found that correction to filament
power due to convection loss is necessary for the gas filled lamps. The experimental
value of the slope of the graph of log P Vs log T for all these lamps is found to be 5,
which shows that the emissivity of the filament surface is proportional to the
temperature of the filament. The graph between the Prad against (T4-To4) is a straight
line. This is good agreement with the Stefan’s law of radiation.
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D. Giulietti and M.Lucchesi [7] describe a new calorimetric method for the
determination of the Stefan- Boltzmann constant σ at the melting point of ice. The
method is completely unaffected by problems related to diffraction effects, which
limited the accuracy of most previous experiments in σ determinations. The status of
the experimental determination of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ which appears in
the radiation law I = σ T4 , where I is the hemispherical power emitted per unit area
by a black body at the absolute temperature T, is much more involved than is often
believed. In fact, highly scattered values were found around the theoretical one σ =
2π5k4/15h3c2, where k is the Boltzmann constant, h is the Planck constant and c the
speed of light.
T.J.Quinn and J.E. Martin [8] describe that the total radiant existence of a
black body at the temperature of the triple point of water (273.16K), and at a series of
other temperatures in the range from about 233 K, has been measured by using a
cryogenic radiometer. From the measurements at a value for the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant σ has been calculated. This is the first radiometric determination of σ having
an uncertainty comparable with that calculated directly from fundamental physical
constants. This measured value differs from the calculated one by 13 parts in 105,
which is less than the combined standard deviations of the measured and calculated
values. From the measurements of existence at the other temperatures, values of the
corresponding thermodynamic temperature T have been calculated by using Stefan’s
fourth-power law.
Since the temperature of the radiating black body was also
measured by platinum resistance thermometers calibrated on IPTS-68, values of (TTs) were obtained.
Robert Eisberg and Robert Resnick [9] describe that Stefan-Boltzmann law is
verified with two different measurements in two temperature regimes. The objective
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of this experiment is to determine the relation of the power emitted by a blackbody to
its temperature in order to verify if the radiance is indeed proportional to T4. This is
done using relative measurements of the emissive power over a broad temperature
range.
The radiation sensor being used is sensitive to the total emissive power
between the wavelengths of 0.6 to 30 mm. The sensor outputs a voltage linearly
proportional to the total emissive power incident on the sensor, which is read with a
multimeter. In this method tungsten bulb is used as a source.
Donald A.Jaworske [10] describes that a finite element analysis model of a
transient technique used to measure the emittance of surfaces and coatings was
developed and used to estimate the uncertainty in emittance. The dimensions used in
the model matched the dimensions used in the design of a low temperature
calorimetric vacuum emissometer being built to characterize the thermal properties of
space power materials in the temperature range 173-673K. Radiant energy from a
quartz halogen lamp impinged on an aluminium sample that was coated with a
thermal control coating and suspended in a liquid-nitrogen-cooled vacuum chamber
by narrow gauge thermocouple wires.
After removing the heat source, the
temperature of the sample was monitored. The temperature-time curve was used to
calculate the emittance.
Francisco J Abellan, Jose A Lbanez, Ramon P valerdi and Jose A Garcia [11]
review that a process for estimating the Stefan-Boltzmann law constant is proposed
through a study of the current- voltage curve of a 12V bulb. The least squares
treatment of the data allows the value of the constant to be determined with results
that agree in accordance with the data in the literature.
Ian cooper [12] describes the simple electric circuit with dc power supply and
bulb is used. From the reading of voltage and current and voltage, power dissipated
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from bulb and temperature of the filament is measured. The cold resistance of the
filament is important parameter in determination temperature of the bulb. At room
temperature when voltage V is applied to the bulb and I is the current flowing through
the bulb then the ratio of voltage and current gives the cold resistance of the bulb.
Temperature of the filament is calculated from following formula T = 300 (Rt/Ro) 0.82.
The graph of log P vs log T is used for verification of Stefan’s law.
John L.Vossen [13] presents the heat transfer characteristics of an object in a
vacuum and to fully examine the Stefan-Boltzmann law. In this experimental set-up
stainless steel rod is a substance. This rod is connected to the electrical leads, which
provides the electricity for heating the rod. A thermocouple is attached to the surface
of the rod to measure the rod temperature.
The rod is heated to a maximum
temperature of about 2900C. After the power has been applied for about 30 minutes,
the temperature of the rod and the surrounding material should reach steady state. At
this point, the values for the current and voltage supplied to the system are recorded.
The temperature of the rod and surroundings temperature are measured continuously.
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant is calculated using the formula σ = IE/AЄ (TR4-TS4).
Mark Wellons [14] describes the experiment attempts to experimentally verify
the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The resistance of a tungsten filament was calculated by
measuring an applied current and voltage. By varying the voltage and current and
measuring the relative change in resistance, the temperature of the filament was
determined. Using the measured voltage and current values, the power emitted by the
filament could also be calculated. The emitted power of the filament was found to be
proportional to the temperature raised to the 3.74 power. The relationship between
the emitted power P of the thermal radiation of a blackbody object and the object
temperature T was found to be the form P = CTα .
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Nazlia Omar,Rozli Zulkifi and Rosilah Hassan [15] describe that the
experiment is located in the heat transfer laboratory, department of mechanical and
materials engineering. A track is used to traverse the radiation back and forth from
the radiation source. Another important instrument is a controller. This contains a
rheostat to control the heat input to the heat source and readout instruments attached
to the radiometer. In this experiment, only the heat source will be used not the light
source.
Imtiaz Ahmad, Sidra Khalid and Ehsan E. Khawaja [16] describe the there are
number of methods for estimating the temperature of the filament of incandescent
lamps. These are the power law between the resistance R and temperature T of the
tungsten filament, the transfer of the input electric power predominantly into Planck’s
radiative channel through Stefan’s law, and study of hysteresis in the current-voltage
characteristics in filament lamp. In the present work three 12-V operated low power
commercial lamps were studied.
Current-voltage measurements were performed
using a variable dc power supply. Multimeters were used to measure the voltage
across the filament and current in the series circuit. The resistance of the filament was
obtained using R=V/I. The temperature of the filament at different voltage was
measured using a Minolta-Land infrared optical pyrometer. The temperatures were
measured for different setting of emissivity, such as 0.3, 0.35, and 0.4.
An
experiment using low-power incandescent lamps for the verification of StefanBoltzmann law was carried out. Two separate sets of measurements were made on
the lamps. These included filament resistance versus applied voltage and filament
temperature versus applied voltage. The results were compared with those calculated
using a simple model.
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Xiaohui Qiao and Xiaofang Cheng [17] review that a micro-portable heat
radiation detector carried on fire-fighters is described. Summing up some techniques
such as thermopile, precise cold-junction compensation and measuring circuit, it
could measure and display heat radiation intensity and temperature in the fire field
where man is situating. It will send out a warning signal according to dangerous
threshold that man can take emergency measures to protect him and escape being
hurt. It provides a security protect instrument for fire-fighters. Putting this measuring
instrument to the spot that men or combustibles are situated, the effect of total
radiation energy that comes from the flame and reaches to the sensors may cause the
sensors temperature to rise. At the thermal balance point, the relationship between
temperature and radiation energy may be described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law
E= σ T4.
S.R.Pathare, R.D. Lahane, S.S.Sawant, and C.C.Patil [18] explain that StefanBoltzmann law of radiation using an incandescent bulb. 0-15V dc power supply is
used for voltage and current adjustments. Digital multimeter is used for voltage and
current measurements.
A digital thermometer with Cr-Al thermocouple as
temperature sensor is given to measure the temperature of the specimen rod. The
thermocouple is placed in contact with the surface of the bulb. Determined the
resistance Ro of the filament at temperature To and determined resistance R of the
filament at various higher values of temperature and determined the temperature of
the filament at different values of R/R300. Finally Stefan-Boltzmann law is verified.
Raghavendra Rao Kanchi and Naveen Kumar Uttarkar [19] explain the study
of heat loss from hot tungsten filament bulb using AT89C51 based data acquisition
system. The electrical power supplied to the filament of an electric lamp gets
converted into heat rising the temperature of the filament. This experiment tries to
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understand the contribution of conduction, convection and radiation in heat loss from
the hot tungsten filament of a partially evacuated bulb. This paper explains the heat
loss from the tungsten filament bulb. This simple experimental setup explains the
heat loss from the hot bodies. In general the heat losses from the hot bodies take
place in three ways by conduction, convection, and radiation losses. This simple
experiment explains the effectively the heat loss from the tungsten bulb. Here the
Newton’s cooling proportionality constant and Stefan’s radiation proportionality
constant is determined.
Marcello Carla [20] proposes that a classical laboratory experiment to verify
the Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law with the tungsten filaments of commercial
incandescent lamps has been fully revisited, collecting a fairly large amount of data
with a computer- controlled four-channel power supply. In principle, the experiment
is quite simple then I (V) relationship of the lamp is measured from zero to the full
working voltage.
computed.
From these data, the power P=IV supplied to the filament is
When the steady state is reached, this power is dissipated into the
environment by radiation and conduction/convection. The filament temperature is
obtained by computing R=V/I.
All measurements were performed with a four-
channel programmable power supply using the self-contained voltage and current
measurement and read back capability. Voltage and current measurement resolution
was specified by the manufacturer as either 6mV, 2mA or 15mV, 0.8mA, depending
on the channel range. Laboratory temperature was continuously recorded during all
measurements with a pt100 connected to a KeithleyDMM199 multimeter.
Di peng, and Shengpeng Wan [21] describe that any objects will produce
infrared radiation when it’s temperature above absolute zero. The radiation flux
density is a function of the temperature of an object. The intensity of the infrared
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radiant energy emitted by the object and its temperature is proportional.
The
temperature of the object is the stronger the higher the energy of the infrared radiation
emitted. The infrared sensor generated signal by the convergence of the infrared light
irradiation. The signal is transmitted to the processing circuit which process and
calculate temperature of the object. Degree of radiation M is determined by the
temperature. Stefan-Boltzmann law is calculated by the following formula M = ЄσT4.
Raj Gaurav Mishra and Amit Kumar Shrivastava [22] in this experiment
Stefan’s law studied using a regular 12V 12W light bulb with its filament as the
radiating body. The temperature of the filament can be varied from room temperature
to about 2500K when operating at its rated voltage. The power radiating from the
filament determined from the electrical power input to the lamp bulb. Temperature of
the filament calculated with the following formula
T/Trt = (R/Rrt)
0.8298
. Graph is
plotted between P and T4 for verification of Stefan’s law.
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2.3. Summary
The literature on Stefan’s constant measurement is given in the form of related
research work. Literature survey reveals that radiance method, optical method of
finding the Stefan’s constant are found to be expensive and limitation in accuracy,
while calorimetric method of finding the Stefan’s constant is less expensive, but this
method requires instrumentality. After going through the literature survey, it has been
found that there is a need to Design and Development of Microcontroller
(LM4F120H5QR) based measurement system for Stefan’s constant of Black body
Radiation. Further, in the present work, a constant current source method is adopted
for Stefan’s constant measurement.
Hence, research work is carried out on the topic “Design and
Development
measurement
of
Microcontroller
system
for
Stefan’s
(LM4F120H5QR)
constant
of
Black
based
body
Radiation”
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REFERENCES
1. W.W.Coblentz,“Present status of the determination of the constant of total radiation
from a black body”, Bull.Burr.stand, Vol.12, pp.553-582, 1916.
2. C.E.Mendenhall, “A Determination of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant of Radiation”
, phys.Rev, vol.34,issue.3, Aug 1929.
3. I.R.Edmond,“Stefan-Boltzmann law in laboratory”, American J.Physics, Vol 36,
No. 845, 1968.
4. W.R. Blevin and W.J. Brown,“A precise Measurement of the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant”, Metrologia, Vol.7, No.1, 1971.
5. E.M.Wray, “A Simple test of Stefan’s law”, Physics Education (U.K), Vol.10,
No.25, Jan 1975.
6. B.S.N Prasad and Rita Mascarenhas, “ A Laboratory experiment on the application
of stefan’s law to tungsten filament electric lamp”, American J. Physics, Vol. 46 ,
No. 4, pp. 420-423, April 1978.
7. D. Giulietti and M. Lucohesi, “A calorimetric Method for the Measurement of the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant” , II Nuovo ciments B,Issue 2, Vol.74, No.2, pp.187198, Apr 1983.
8. T.J Quinn and J.E.Martin , “ A Radiometric Determination of the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant and thermodynamic Temperatures between -40 degrees C and +100 degrees
C” ,philos.Trans.R.Soc.Landon , No.316, pp.85-189,1985.
9. Robert Eisberg and Robert Resnick, “The Stefan-Boltzmann law”, Quantum physics
of Atoms,Molecules,Solids,Nuclei,and particles,wiley, 2nd Edition,1985.
10. Donald A.Jaworske,“Thermal modelling of a calorimetric technique for measuring
the emittance of surfaces and coatings”, NASA Lewis Research center, USA,Thin
solid Films, No.236, pp.146-152, 1993.
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11.Francisco j Abellan , Jose A lbanez, Ramon p valerdi and Jose A Garcia , “ The
Stefan-Boltzmann constant obtained from the I-V curve of bulb”, European Journal
of physics, Vol 34, No. 5, 1995.
12. Ian cooper, “Physics with a car headlamp and a computer”, Physics Education,
Vol.32, No. 3, pp.197-200, 1997.
13. John L.Vossen, “Characteristics of Heat Transfer in a Vacuum”, chris Ann slye
Memorial Award Recipient oct 1999.
14.Mark Wellons, “ The Stefan-Boltzmann law”, Physics department,the college of
Wooster, Wooster,ohio No.44691, USA, May 9, 2007.
15.Nazia Omar,Rozli Zulkifli, and Rosilah Hassan, “Development of a Virtual
Laboratory for Radiation Heat Transfer”, European Journal of Scientific Research,
Vol. 32, No.4, pp.562-571, 2009 .
16. Imtiaz Ahmad, sidra Khalid, and Ehsan E.Khawaja, “Filament temperature of low
power incandescent lamps: Stefan-Boltzmann law”, Lat.Am.J, Vol.4, No.4, pp.562571, Jan 2010.
17. Xiaohui Qiao and Xiaofang cheng , “ A Micro-Portable heat radiation detector and
its application” , state key Laboratory of china , Hefei, Anhi.
18.S.R. Pathare,R.D.Lahene,S.S.Sawant and C.C.patil, “ power loss from hot tungsten
filament”, Homi Bhabha centre for science Education(TIFR),V.N.Purav,Marg,
ManKhurd, Mumbai.
19. Raghavendra Rao Kanchi and Naveen Kumar Uttarkar, “Study of heat loss from hot
Tungsten filament bulb using AT89c51 Based Data Acquisition System”,
International Journal of Applied physics and Mathematics, Vol 2, No.3, May 2012.
20. Marcello caria, “Stefan-Boltzmann law for the tungsten filament of a light
bulb:Revisiting the experiment”,Am.J. Phys, pp.81-92, No. 7, July 2013.
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21.Di pang,Shengpeng wan , “ Industrial Temperature Monitoring System Design
Based on Zigbee and Infrared Temperature Sensing”, Nanchang Hangkong
University,Nanchang,Chine,optical and photonics Journal, No.3, pp.277-280, 2013.
22. www.fiziks.net/life sciences/exp 54.htm.
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