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Contents
Contents
Acknowledgementsi
4. Flexibility
35
ABOUT THIS RESOURCE
iv
5. Speed
35
1. The Book
iv
6. Power
36
2. The Download
iv
7. Agility
36
8. Reaction Time
36
9. Coordination
36
10. Balance
36
CHAPTER 1: DEVELOPING PHYSICAL SKILLS, STRATEGIES
AND TACTICS
1
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES 1
1. Direct Interceptive Activities
1
2. Indirect Interceptive Activities
2
3. Performance Activities
2
4. Aesthetic Activities
2
Individual Versus Team Activities
3
STRATEGIES AND TACTICS 6
Strategies6
Tactics
6
SUPPORT MATERIALS FOR THE PRACTICAL SKILLS
COMPONENT8
CHAPTER REVISION
9
THE TRAINING SESSION
Components of a Training Session
38
38
CHAPTER REVISION
41
CHAPTER 3: FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY
45
A. THE HUMAN SKELETON46
Types of Bones Comprising the Skeleton
47
Skeletal Structure
49
Anatomical Planes and Axes
51
B. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM54
Functions of the Muscular System
54
Types of Muscle
54
Features Common to Muscle Types
55
CHAPTER 2: MOTOR LEARNING AND COACHING
11
How Muscles Produce Movement
56
SKILL LEARNING 11
Major Skeletal Muscles that Assist with Movement
56
Skill Defined
11
Movement allowed by Different Joints
59
Characteristics of Skilled Movement
12
The Learning Process
13
The Phases in Learning Motor Skills (Fitts and Posner)
15
Phase 1: The Cognitive Stage
15
Phase 2: The Associative Stage
16
Phase 3: The Autonomous Stage
16
THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS
19
1. Muscle Involvement
19
2. Continuity
20
3. Pacing
20
4. Environmental Impact
21
5. Complexity
21
TEACHING SKILLS
24
Instructional Techniques
OBSERVING SKILLS
24
BODY TYPES 62
Endomorphy (711)
62
Mesomorphy (171)
63
Ectomorphy (117)
63
Body Type and Performance
63
C. THE CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEM
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1. The Blood
Major Components of Blood 66
66
66
67
2. Blood Vessels 68
3. The Heart
70
Circulation of the Blood Around the Body
74
Blood Pressure
74
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 78
28
1. The Air Passages
78
Observation Schedules
28
2. The Lungs
79
Video of Performance
31
Reflecting on Performance
31
Knowledge of Results
32
The Breathing Process
81
34
Lung Volumes
82
COMPONENTS OF FITNESS AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
1. Cardiorespiratory Endurance
34
2. Muscular Strength
35
3. Muscular Endurance
35
Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs
3. The Diaphragm
CHAPTER REVISION
80
81
84
iii
Contents
CHAPTER 4: BIOMECHANICS
89
BIOMECHANICS 89
Analysing Basic Movement Patterns
92
Anatomical Movement Descriptors
96
Biomechanical Principles Relating to Motion
96
1. Linear Motion
97
2. Angular Motion
97
3. General Motion
99
Safety and the Prevention of Injuries
101
CHAPTER REVISION
104
CHAPTER 5: EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
107
WHAT IS FITNESS?
Components of Fitness
107
108
A. Components of Health-related Fitness
109
B. Components of Performance-related Fitness
113
FITNESS TESTING
115
Fitness Tests
117
Conducting the Tests
127
Interpreting the Results
127
Presentation of Results – Fitness Profiles
128
TRAINING TO IMPROVE FITNESS130
The Training Session
RESPONSE OF THE CIRCULATORY AND
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 130
134
A. Response of the Circulatory System
to Physical Activity
135
B. Response of the Respiratory System
to Physical Activity
138
ENERGY SYSTEMS
140
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
140
Sources of ATP
140
1. The Anaerobic Pathway
141
2. The Aerobic Pathway
143
Anaerobic Capacity
144
CHAPTER REVISION
147
CHAPTER 6: SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
151
VALUES, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS
Values
151
151
Attitudes153
Self-Identity156
Self-Concept158
Self-Esteem160
iv
TEAM BUILDING SKILLS AND STRATEGIES
161
Interpersonal Skills
162
The Formation of Groups
166
Team Dynamics
138
Ingredients for Effective Teamwork
171
CREATING A MINDSET TO IMPROVE
PERFORMANCE171
1. Knowing and Believing in Yourself
171
2. Learning from Success and Failure
174
3. Using Positive Self-Talk
174
4. Using Mental Imagery
177
CHAPTER REVISION
181
APPENDIX A: USING VIDEO TO DEVELOP SKILLS,
STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
185
USING VIDEO TO DEVELOP SKILLS,
STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
185
Evaluation of Personal Ability: Building a Profile
and Identifying How to Improve Performance
186
Capturing Skills in Situations: Looking at
Technical, Tactical and Decision Making Abilities
189
Building a Profile and Mapping Progress
190
Using Video in Analysis of Other Roles and
Other Abilities
192
Focusing on Technique
192
‘Real’ Examples
198
GLOSSARY
203
REFERENCES211
Download to accompany this text...
Introduction
ABOUT THIS RESOURCE
1. The Book
T
his book has been written for students studying the Physical Education Studies
Year 11 General course in Western Australia.
The book is presented in six chapters, in keeping with the content structure of the revised
Physical Education Studies Syllabus (WACE 2015-16).
This book provides up-to-date information covering the content for Unit 1 and Unit 2 of
the Year 11 General course. Each chapter provides a range of activities, focus questions
and suggested websites to guide learning. A chapter revision section at the end of each
chapter provides a review of what the learner should know, and asks questions that
challenge the student to integrate their understandings, encourage critical thinking and
take a holistic view of the course content.
The content of the two units has been combined within each chapter to encourage a
more holistic approach to the concepts covered.
A number of icons are used throughout the book to indicate specific meanings.
U1
Indicates that the activity relates to content covered in Unit 1
of the course. U2 indicates that the activity relates to Unit 2.
Indicates a link to the Download accompanying this text.
Information relevant to what is being read will be contained
on the Download in the form of a Quiz.
Indicates a link to the Download accompanying this text.
Information relevant to what is being read will be contained
on the Download in the form of a Video.
While the book has been prepared for you, the students, it is also intended to serve as a
comprehensive resource for teachers. Chapters provide coverage of all Unit 1 and Unit 2
content as well as suggesting class activities.
2. The Download
The Download that accompanies this text provides a variety of video clips to illustrate and
supplement concepts described in the book. It also include a set of interactive multiple
choice questions for each chapter.
v
Introduction
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To view the information in the Download, open the file titled ‘PES Download Menu.pdf’.
Clicking on a listed item will take you to your selection. Each item will appear in a new
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NOTE: This book is also available as:
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vi
CHAPTER 1: Developing Physical Skills and Tactics
CHAPTER 1
Developing Physical Skills
and Tactics
Key Concepts
☛
Strategies and tactics
☛
The basic classifications of physical activity
☛
Basic tactical concepts
☛
Basic tactical problems and applying solutions
In order to enhance participation in physical activity, it is important to understand
how strategies, tactics and skills can be combined to produce optimum
performance. In this chapter we will discuss the classification of activities
based on their tactical approach, basic strategic and tactical approaches and
the solutions to different tactical problems as they relate to the specific activity
in which you are participating.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES
P
hysical activities can be classified according to a number of criteria, including
playing space, structure, interaction, skills, strategies and environment. Each of
these classifications holds implications for the strategies, tactics and skills applied in the
competitive situation.
1. Direct Interceptive Activities
Activities can be classified according to the extent of contact with your
opponent. Football, hockey, soccer, rugby, basketball and martial arts, are
all activities in which you may come into contact with your opponent while
competing for space or control of an implement, such as a ball, and therefore
have a direct influence on your opponent’s performance. For example:
•• a tackle in football and hockey
•• marking your player in soccer
•• defending a pass in basketball
1
CHAPTER 1: Developing Physical Skills and Tactics
•• a scrum in rugby
•• engaging in ‘combat’ in martial arts.
Such activities generally take place in a specified area of play, such as a court, field or
ring, and involve an equal number of competitors on opposing sides, who occupy this
designated space simultaneously.
2. Indirect Interceptive Activities
Indirect interceptive activities, such as tennis, squash, volleyball and cricket,
are those in which you have no direct contact with your opponent. In many
of these activities, such as volleyball, table tennis, tennis and badminton, this
is because a net separates the playing areas of opponents. In others, the
intention is for players to intercept the implements of play, as in softball and
cricket, or the direction of an opponent’s movement, as in windsurfing and
sailing.
3. Performance Activities
Another classification is that of performance activities.
Activities such as swimming, surfing, cycling, golf, rowing and track
and field, are those in which you are required to meet objective
standards – time in swimming, cycling and running events, distance
in discus and long jump, height in pole vault, and par in golf. It is the
quality of your own performance that determines the outcome. The
aim is to improve on standards reached by other competitors and
the achievement of ‘personal bests’.
4. Aesthetic Activities
Aesthetic activities, such as diving, gymnastics and
figure skating, are those in which the aesthetic ‘form’,
skill and creativity are taken into account in judging performance.
Some of these activities are objectively scored, that is, performance
measured by criteria given to judges, as in the case of diving, gymnastics
and synchronised swimming.
Other activities, such as ski jumping use a combination of objective and
subjective scoring, in which points are awarded both for distance travelled
(objective) and technique and form in flight and on
landing (subjective).
A slightly different
In all such activities, the ultimate goal of the
competitor is to achieve the perfect performance.
2
classification of activities is
presented in Table 1.1 on the
following page.
CHAPTER 1: Developing Physical Skills and Tactics
Table 1.1: Alternative Classification of Activities
Activity type
Example activities
Invasion Games
AFL
Basketball
Hockey
Netball
Rugby Union
Rugby League
Lacrosse
Soccer
Touch
Water Polo
Games Activities – Net/Wall
Badminton
Volleyball
Tennis
Squash
Games Activities – Striking/Fielding
Cricket
Softball
Baseball
Target Games
Golf
Lawn Bowls
Ten Pin Bowling
Athletic Activities
Track and Field
Swimming
Triathlon
Cycling
Walking
Speed Skating
Surf Lifesaving
Water-based Activities
Kayaking
Rowing
Water skiing
Windsurfing
Surf Sailing
Gymnastic/Aesthetic Activities
Artistic Gymnastics
Rhythmic Gymnastics
Trampolining
Synchronised Swimming
Diving
Figure Skating
Combat Sports
Martial Arts
Boxing
Wrestling
Extreme Sports
Skateboarding
Rock Climbing
Adapted from Curriculum Council of Western Australia (2010)
3
CHAPTER 2: Motor Learning and Coaching
THE TRAINING SESSION
Components of a Training Session
Generally, a training session comprises
the following basic components:
While these components exist within
each training session, both the order
in which they occur, and the amount of
time spent on each component may vary
considerably from one session, team
and/or sport to the next.
(5-10 mins)
5
N
6
COOL-DOWN
DUC T IO
80
3
1
IN T RO
introduction
warm-up
fitness training
skill development
culmination
cool-down
evaluation.
7
EVALUATION
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
90
85
2
WARM-UP
(15-20 mins)
FITNESS TRAINING 3
CULMINATION
(20-30 mins)
(15-20 mins)
30
SKILL DEVELOPMENT
(30-50 mins)
60
4
Figure 2.5: Components of a training session
1. Introduction
The introduction comprises a brief meeting between the coach and the athletes, during
which the players are informed of the expected learning outcomes of the session and
how these will be achieved. Its aim is to psychologically prepare the athletes for the
training session.
2. Warm-up
The warm-up occupies the first 15 to 20 minutes of the training session. Its objective is
to prepare athletes, both physically and mentally, for the demands of the training session.
The warm-up should include general aerobic activities, specific stretching exercises, and
simple sport specific exercises, providing for a gradual increase in the level of activities
until athletes are completely ready to safely produce maximum effort. By the end of the
warm-up, the athletes should be sweating lightly and be psychologically aroused for
optimal learning and performance.
The length and structure of the warm-up will vary between sports and in accordance with
the age of the athletes.
38
15
CHAPTER 2: Motor Learning and Coaching
3. Fitness Training
Fitness training should generally occupy 15 to 20 minutes of a 90 minute
training session. This is in addition to that which occurs necessarily during
skill practice. By allocating a separate time for fitness, athletes are able to
concentrate on the development of their physical capabilities, without the
constraints of executing skills.
Fitness conditioning should generally follow skill practice, when working
to exhaustion will not affect the learning and performance of skills and/or
strategies. Two exceptions are speed training and fatigue loading.
•• Speed training: requires the body parts to be moved as quickly as
possible, and therefore requires the body to be relatively fresh, rather
than hampered by fatigue. This type of training should immediately follow
the warm-up.
•• Fatigue loading: is when the athlete is placed into a fatiguing situation which is then
followed by skill practice to elicit an ability to maintain skill performance whilst fatigued.
This will only be of value when the skill has already been learned and automated.
4. Skill Development
The skill development component will generally be the major part of a
training session, occupying 40 to 60 minutes of a 90 minute session. It has
two elements:
•• introduction of a new skill and/or strategy
•• revision and maintenance of previously acquired skills and/or strategies.
Introduction of a new skill and/or strategy
This should occur immediately following the warm-up while athletes are still fresh. Fatigue
can interfere with skill learning. Skill instructions should be limited to 2 or 3 important
points and be accompanied by a demonstration. It is important not to lose the effect of
the warm-up by delivering lengthy and elaborate instructions.
Revision and maintenance of previously acquired skills and/or strategies
This should follow the ‘new skills’ phase. The focus is on previously learned and automated
skills, and drills and practices designed to develop team play.
Not every session will comprise both components, and the amount of time devoted to
each component will vary according to the needs of the athletes and the sport.
39
CHAPTER 2: Motor Learning and Coaching
5. Culmination
The culmination is intended to apply the skills that have been either learned or reinforced
during the skill development phase of the training. It can take the form of a competition
during a skills practice or a modified or half-court game that requires the implementation
of skills in a ‘pressure’ situation.
6. Cool-down
The cool-down is designed to gradually return body functions to normal levels at the end
of a training session. It should comprise light aerobic exercise and stretching, and be of
5 to 10 minutes duration. The cool-down assists in the distribution of metabolic wastes
through the body, and reduces the harmful impact of dramatic changes to the body’s
activity level.
7. Evaluation
The evaluation of a training session should occur either during, or immediately following
the cool-down. Effective coaches will never neglect this phase of the session. It is an
opportunity to obtain feedback from the athletes as to whether they felt the learning
outcomes of the session were achieved, and to note any problems that require solution
for the next training session. This time can also be used to focus the players’ attention
on upcoming competition.
40
CHAPTER 2: Motor Learning and Coaching
CHAPTER REVISION
Chapter Checklist
❑❑ Motor skill relates to physical skills that require body movement and rely upon motor control.
❑❑ Skill involves a complex sequence of movements, is learned and requires practice, is goal-directed
and results in precise and coordinated movement, which is economic and efficient.
❑❑ Skilled performers, through practice and experience: selectively attend to cues, interpret information
and choose the most appropriate response, respond and move more quickly, time their sequence of
movements more efficiently, and combine their movement patterns more successfully.
❑❑ The learning process (Information Processing Model) involves the following sequence: perceiving
(input), deciding (processing), acting (output) and evaluating (feedback).
❑❑ The Fitts and Posner Model of skill learning describes three phases: cognitive, associative and
autonomous.
❑❑ In the cognitive stage of learning the focus is on conceptualisation – visualising the whole skill and
determining what is to be done.
❑❑ The associative stage of learning is known as the ‘practice’ phase, characterised by extensive
practice with an emphasis on correct timing and sequencing of movement patterns.
❑❑ In the autonomous stage of learning, skills can be performed without conscious thought, and are
characterised by a high degree of accuracy, reliability and consistency.
❑❑ Motor skills can be classified and presented on a continuum according to:
•
•
•
•
•
muscle involvement – fine and gross motor skills
continuity – discrete, serial and continuous skills
environmental influences – closed and open skills
complexity – simple and complex skills.
pacing – self-paced and externally-paced skills
❑❑ The basic process of teaching a skill involves the following steps: introduction, demonstration,
practice, feedback.
❑❑ The development of skills can be observed using a variety of tools including observation schedules,
video, knowledge of results and reflecting on performance.
❑❑ There exists a relationship between components of fitness and skill development. For example,
gymnastics skills require flexibility, strength and balance; squash skills require endurance, strength,
coordination and agility; and sprint events require power and reaction time.
❑❑ The basic elements of a training session are: introduction, warm-up, fitness session, skill
development, culmination, cool-down and evaluation.
41
CHAPTER 2: Motor Learning and Coaching
Test Yourself
Listed below are key concepts from this chapter.
Define each in your own words.
Where appropriate, explain how each concept has an impact on performance.
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
42
Skill
Motor skill
Input
Processing
Output
Response
Feedback
Fitts and Posner Model of skill learning
Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage
Classification of skills
Fine and gross motor skills
Discrete, serial and continuous motor skills
Closed and open skills
Simple and complex skills
Self-paced and externally-paced skills
Introduction to teaching a skill
Demonstration
Practice
Error correction
Observation schedule
Video of performance
Knowledge of results
Reflection on performance
Components of fitness and skill development
CHAPTER 2: Motor Learning and Coaching
Integrating Concepts
The following questions require you to draw on understandings from this and other chapters.
1.
Imagine you are watching two players competing in a sport of your choice. One is a beginner and the
other is a professional. Describe the characteristics displayed by the players that would enable you to
distinguish between them.
2.
Select a major skill in the sport of your choice. Describe the learning of the skill in terms of the
Information Processing Model. Use the Fitts and Posner Model of skill learning to describe a
performer’s progression through the phases of learning the skill. Be sure to consider:
•• the focus of the performer
•• the characteristics of the performance.
3.
Imagine you are about to teach the rest of your class a skill from the sport of your choice. Describe in
detail how you would go about this, following the four steps of the teaching process – introduction,
demonstration, practice, feedback.
4.
Develop an Observation Schedule for a major skill in the sport of your choice. Explain how this tool
could be used to improve performance.
5.
Describe how you could use video as a tool to observe skill development and improve performance.
6.
For a sport of your choice, explain the relationship between the relevant components of fitness and the
skills involved in the sport.
7.
Imagine you are about to conduct a training session for the sport of your choice. Outline how you
would structure the session, and describe in detail what you would include in each segment of the
training session.
See DOWNLOAD
Chapter 2 Quiz:
A set of
interactive
multiple choice
questions
43
CHAPTER 3: Functional Anatomy
How Muscles Produce Movement
The body is able to move only as a result of the
actions of skeletal muscles. The brain sends a
message by a nerve impulse to the muscle and
movement occurs.
For any movement to take place, there must be a
joint between two bones, and a muscle must not only
cross over that joint, but it must also be attached to
two bones.
Ligaments
Ligaments are the fibrous, slightly stretchy
connective tissues that hold one bone to another
in the body, forming a joint. Ligaments control the
range of motion of a joint, preventing your elbow from
bending backwards, for example, and stabilising the joint so that the bones move in the
proper alignment.
Ligaments are composed of strands of collagen fibers. While ligaments are slightly
stretchy, they are arranged in crossing patterns to prevent the joint itself from becoming
loose.
Tendons
In some instances, muscle fibres are attached directly to bone but in most places, muscles
are joined to bone by bands of fibrous connective tissue called tendons. Tendons vary
in length depending on the location of the muscles. They may sometimes be very long,
as in the joints of the fingers, where a bulky mass of muscle around the bones would
interfere with the fine movements required. The muscles moving the fingers are therefore
located in the forearm and connect with the phalanges across joints by long tendons.
Muscle Fibres
Muscles are capable of producing movement at joints because muscle fibres (large
bundles of long muscle cells) contract, when stimulated by a nerve impulse. When fibres
contract, the whole muscle becomes shorter in length and thicker.
Major Skeletal Muscles that Assist with Movement
The major skeletal muscles, together with the movement they produce and the joint
involved in the movement are presented in Table 3.1 on the following page.
56
CHAPTER 3: Functional Anatomy
Table 3.1: The Actions of the Major Skeletal Muscles
Muscle
Movement
Joint Involved
Sternomastoid
Sideways flexion and rotation of the head
Neck
Trapezius
Raises and adducts the scapula
Shoulder
Latissimus dorsi
Extension, internal rotation and adduction of the arm
Shoulder
Pectoralis group
Flexion, internal rotation and adduction of the arm
Shoulder
Abdominal group
Flexion and rotation of the trunk
Vertebral column
Intercostals
Raising and lowering the ribs
Ribs/Sternum
Deltoid
Flexion, extension, rotation and abduction of the arm
Shoulder
Biceps
Flexion and supination of the forearm
Elbow
Triceps
Extension of forearm
Elbow
Hand and finger flexors
Flexion of the fingers and hand
Wrist, Interphalanges
Hand and finger extensors
Extension of fingers and hand
Wrist, Interphalanges
Gluteal group
Extension, external rotation and abduction of the leg
Hip
Quadriceps group
Flexion of the leg and extension of the lower leg
Hip, Knee
Hamstring group
Extension of the leg and flexion of the lower leg
Hip, Knee
Tibialis anterior
Dorsiflexion and inversion
Ankle
Gastrocnemius
Plantar flexion and flexion of the lower leg
Ankle, Knee
The location of these major skeletal muscles is shown in Figure 3.8.
57
CHAPTER 4: Biomechanics
ACTIVITY 4.1: The role of biomechanics
U1
Work with a partner.
1.
Select two skill that are fundamental to two different physical activity in which
you are participating, either at school or in the community.
2. Have your partner video your performance of the selected skills.
3. Observe your performance, in slow motion if possible, to identify aspects of
the movement that:
•• are crucial to the effective performance of the skill
•• reduce the likelihood of injury while performing the skill.
Record your findings in the table below.
Effective Performance
Reduction of Injury
Skill 1:
Skill 2:
Analysing Basic Movement Patterns
The analysis of technique can be simplified to some extent, if we remember
that movement patterns apply across a wide range of activities, and
that biomechanical principles often apply to more than one movement
pattern. For example:
•• many movement patterns can be broken down into phases of
movement such as preparation, action and follow through
•• the principle of summation of momentum applies to both throwing and
striking.
The tables to follow provide an overview of the biomechanical principles
that apply to the basic movement patterns of running, throwing and
striking.
92
CHAPTER 4: Biomechanics
Running...
Key features of technique
Biomechanical principles
LANDING PHASE:
•• flexion of the hip knee and ankle joints
•• absorption of forces, to arrest athletes
downward motion due to gravity
•• preparation for the driving phase with
minimum loss of momentum
•• foot lands as close as possible to directly •• placement of foot as close as possible
under hips
to centre of gravity in order to reduce
slowing effect on horizontal velocity
DRIVING PHASE:
Legs
•• thrust downward and backward against
the track by extending at the hip, knee
and ankle joints
•• application of force is responsible for
acceleration and velocity
RECOVERY PHASE:
•• moderate knee lift at the front
•• knee lift provides a greater range of
motion and therefore a longer stride
length – this allows a slightly longer
foot contact with the ground, thereby
generating more force
•• foot brought up to buttocks at the back in •• shortens the lever and therefore makes
a moderate arc
it easier to move the leg through for the
next stride (rotation at the hip) – stride
rate can be increased
Arms
•• as the left knee swings forward and
upward, the right arm swings forward
and upwards (hand to about shoulder
height), and the left arm swings
backward (to the hip or slightly behind)
•• as the left foot is lowered and the right
leg begins to move forward, the action of
the arms is reversed
•• arms swing freely, with elbows bent at
90º
•• arms act to balance the rotary motion of
the lower body
Trunk
•• torso remains erect and ‘tall’ with
minimal up and down movement
•• head remains erect and still, with eyes
focused forward to a point on the track
•• to maximise balance of the whole body
and horizontal momentum
NOTE: Running technique will of course vary, depending on whether the performer is
sprinting, jogging or running within a game situation. Such variations in technique will
not affect the relevance of the biomechanical principles discussed, but will influence
their specific application. For example, the force exerted on the track needs to be
greater when sprinting, in order to generate the maximum possible acceleration and
horizontal velocity. When running a marathon, such intensity of effort cannot be
maintained over the 42.2 km distance and therefore, the force exerted on the track by
the athlete will be reduced. In this way, they are able to achieve a balance between the
distance covered and the speed at which this is achieved.
93
CHAPTER 4: Biomechanics
Linear Motion
Rotation at the hip, knee and ankle
Figure 4.7: Rotation at various joints to produce linear motion
Another example is swimming freestyle. The angular motion of the arms turns into linear
motion of the body (see Figure 4.8).
Linear Motion
Rotation at the shoulder
Figure 4.8: Rotation at the shoulder joint to produce linear motion
By recognising the interrelationship between the angular and linear motion, it is possible
to determine ways in which to improve performance. Think about the following scenarios:
•• How could the cyclist and swimmer, shown in the above examples, increase their
linear speed?
•• What is the difference in the angular rotation of the golf club for a drive as opposed to
a short chip shot? Why is this so?
•• Why does a fast bowler in cricket take a longer run-up that a spin bowler?
•• What do you do when you want to hit a firmer forehand in tennis?
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CHAPTER 5
Exercise Physiology
Key Concepts
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☛
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Components of health-related fitness
Components of performance-related fitness
Fitness tests
Warm-up and cool-down
Responses of the circulatory system to physical activity
Responses of the respiratory system to physical activity
The energy systems
WHAT IS FITNESS?
I
t is difficult to adequately define such a complex human characteristic as ‘fitness’.
Early authors focused on the notion of fitness as the capacity to carry out everyday
activities (work and leisure) without excessive fatigue, and with enough energy in reserve
for emergencies. However, the many technological advances of our modern society,
intended to eliminate physical exertion from everyday activities, render such a definition
inadequate. Almost anyone could be classified as physically fit. Although a high level of
fitness is probably not required by most people to work in a world dominated by technical
innovations, regular physical activity is essential for the body to function properly.
Considering warnings regarding the detrimental effects of inactivity on our health and
well-being, a more accurate definition of fitness is required.
Fitness is better defined as ‘the capability of the heart, blood vessels, lungs and muscles
to function at optimal efficiency’. Optimal efficiency refers to the most favourable level
of health needed for the enthusiastic and pleasurable participation in daily tasks and
recreational activities.
Each person has the capacity to develop and maintain a high level of personal fitness,
that level being dependent on one’s needs. While it is true that an individual’s occupation
will affect their need for physical fitness, it is not true that there is little need for fitness
for those employed in sedentary occupations. Every individual has a need for fitness for
a healthy lifestyle. Factors unique to the individual will determine the extent and exact
nature of their fitness.
Fitness aims to restore and support the normal physiological functioning of the body.
There are a number of identifiable differences between a fit body and an unfit body.
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A fit body is characterised by:
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
••
a higher work output
more efficient heart and lungs
additional energy reserves
lower body fat
good muscle tone
lower resting heart rate
lower blood pressure
decreased risk of heart disease
decreased stress on the body during activity
faster recovery from exercise.
To develop and maintain fitness requires a vigorous effort by the whole body. Once
a fitness level is reached, it can be maintained only through a continuing program of
exercise.
Fitness decreases with inactivity. Because of our sedentary lifestyles, physical fitness
tends to decline with age. However, it is possible to remain fit throughout life by participating
in appropriate activities and exercise programs.
Components of Fitness
Fitness is not a single characteristic, but rather a combination of a number of
components. These components can be divided into two areas: health-related and skill
or performance-related.
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A. Components of Health-related Fitness
1. Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Cardiorespiratory endurance is the capacity of the body to be involved in continuous
physical activity for an extended period of time. This requires the efficient functioning of
the heart, lungs and blood vessels to supply oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles,
and to remove carbon dioxide and waste materials produced during contraction.
Cardiorespiratory endurance, also referred to as stamina or aerobic fitness, is the
most essential component of fitness due to the various health benefits associated with
its development.
Aerobically fit people have a higher work capacity, think more clearly, have a faster rate of
recovery from activity, and suffer from less stress than people with low levels of aerobic
fitness.
Cardiorespiratory endurance is initially developed through extended, continuous sessions
of reasonably light physical activity such as jogging, swimming or cycling. This forces the
heart and lungs to continuously supply the working muscles with oxygen. The activity
level can be increased as the person’s fitness level increases.
High levels of cardiorespiratory endurance produce the following effects on the body:
•• a decrease in both the resting and exercise heart
rates
•• an increased development of capillary networks
that supply blood to the working muscles
•• an improvement in the physiological functioning of
the muscles
•• a strengthening of the heart muscle
•• an increase in lung capacities
•• improved efficiency in the coordinated working of
the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and muscles.
2. Muscular Strength
Muscular strength is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to exert a force against
a resistance in a single maximal contraction. The greater the strength of the muscle,
the greater will be the force the muscle can exert. Strength is often represented by the
maximum weight a person can lift or the strongest grip a person can exert. Activities
requiring strength are anaerobic in nature.
Strength is fundamental to all sports, essential in the efficient performance of many
everyday activities, and important in maintaining good posture.
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2. Bend, twist and touch test (dynamic flexibility)
Equipment:
Wall, stopwatch.
Twist to touch the wall
directly behind 2 hands
Bend to touch the
ground - 2 hands
Procedure:
1. Stand 0.5 metres from a wall with feet apart and back to
the wall.
2. From a standing position, bend to touch the floor directly
in front of the body with both hands.
3. Return to the standing position, turning to the right to
touch the wall directly behind with both hands.
4. Bend to touch the floor again, then stand to touch the
wall directly behind, this time turning to the left.
5. Repeat this as many times as possible in 20 seconds.
Count ‘one’ each time the wall is touched.
STANDARDS
in number completed:
(NOTE: the same standards
apply for males and females.)
Excellent
>19
Good
18
Average
17
Fair
15-16
Poor
<15
6. Compare score with the standards provided.
E. Body Composition
1. Skinfold measurements
Equipment:
Skinfold callipers
Procedure:
1. Skinfolds will be measured at three specific sites on the body – the triceps, scapula
and abdomen.
2. Measure skinfolds on the right hand side of the body using skinfold calipers. These
calipers are designed to measure the thickness of the skin and subcutaneous fat (fat
stored beneath the skin).
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3. Grasp the skinfold between the thumb and forefinger. The skinfold should contain
two skin surfaces and the subcutaneous fat, but not muscle.
4. Apply the calipers about 1 cm below the fingers holding the skinfold, as deep as
possible on the skinfold. Take each fold in the vertical plane while the subject is
standing.
5. Repeat the procedure three times at one site before progressing to the next, in order
to ensure accuracy. The mean of the two closest readings should be recorded.
6. The sites at which the measurements should be taken are:
•• Triceps: the back of the upper arm,
STANDARDS
midway between the shoulder and the
for total of 3 skinfold measurements:
elbow.
•• Subscapular: the bottom point of the
Males
Females
scapula (shoulder blade).
Excellent
<22
<25
•• Abdomen: 5 centimetres to the side
Good
34-22
42-25
of the navel.
7.
Add the three measurements obtained for
a total skinfold.
8. Compare the score obtained with the
standards provided.
Triceps
Average
65-35
73-43
Fair
82-66
90-74
Poor
>82
>90
Subscapular
Abdominal
F. Power
1. Standing long jump (leg power)
Standing start
Equipment:
Measuring tape, firm non-slip surface, take-off line.
Procedure:
1. With toes behind the take-off line and feet still, jump
forward to cover as much distance as possible. No
run-up is allowed.
2-feet landing
2. Land on both feet and continue momentum forward.
Distance is measured from the take-off line to the
heels, or part of body closest to the take-off line.
3. Measure 3 jumps and record the greatest distance covered.
4. Compare the best score with the standards provided.
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Irrespective of the type of group, interaction is the key.
This can be either social or task-related.
• Social interaction: this refers to friendship groups
that form. These groups can be very positive, in that
they give the individual a sense of belonging, but can
also have a negative effect on the total group, if the
friendship groups become exclusive cliques.
• Task-related interaction: this refers to the way in
which individual participants cooperate with each other
to achieve successful outcomes for the team. In some
activities, a high degree of task interaction is crucial,
if the team is to succeed, as in the case of invasion
games, such as basketball, soccer, hockey and water
polo, and even in some individual activities, such as cycle road racing, in which the
team must work together to bring about the individual success of one rider.
Interpersonal Skills
Before we move on to explore the skills and strategies involved in team building, we
briefly discuss the interpersonal skills that are so important in the process.
Interpersonal skills are those emotions and social skills that enable individuals to build
and maintain effective functioning relationships with others. They include communication
skills, assertion skills, relationship skills, skills for working with others, problem solving
and negotiating skills.
1. Communication Skills
Communication involves sending and receiving messages. It is the exchange of
thoughts, information or opinions by speech, signs or writing. It is important to learn how
to communicate effectively, so that our messages are clearly understood, particularly in a
physical activity setting, where the success of a team can depend on the understanding
that exists between members, and where there is risk of injury. An effective communicator
can both send and correctly receive messages.
Participating in a team enables communication skills to
develop over a period of time. People may have to work
together closely in various situations, such as training, fundraisers and under competitive conditions. They quickly learn
to communicate effectively, and develop relationships with
people they may not know well. The ultimate example of
this is an efficient rowing crew displaying communication,
cooperation and coordination.
Over a period of time a spirit of camaraderie, characterised
by respect and trust, usually develops within the team. This
leads to greater self-learning, self-esteem, self-confidence,
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and making friends. It also minimises the chance of misunderstandings
occurring. These behaviours and skills developed in the sporting setting can
also be transferred to other situations involving family, work and friendships.
Communication between individuals engaged in physical activity can take
two different forms, namely verbal and non-verbal.
a. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication involves use of the voice, and can be either
one-way or two-way communication. One-way communication occurs when there
is no interaction between the sender and the receiver, for example a coach shouting
instructions to players on the field during play.
Generally, the more effective form of communicating is two-way communication. Here,
questions may be asked to help clarify the message. For example, at half time, the coach
discussing strategies for the next half with players and giving the players the opportunity
to present their views.
Communication not only involves the process of one person imparting information, but
also requires others to listen and acknowledge what is being said. The most effective
communication results when the receiver is involved in active listening (interpreting and
understanding what is being said).
b. Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication plays an important role in how we relate to others. MacKay
(1994) stated that it is important to pay attention to the way in which we communicate,
because ‘in a normal conversation, spoken words account for less than half the total
meaning that is attached to the message’. Specific methods of non-verbal communication
include overall body position, hand and arm movements, facial expressions, eye contact
and physical distance. Body language can present different messages to different
people. It is the way people express thoughts or feelings through actions, for example,
using hand signals by a receiving player to indicate the preferred direction of a pass, the
hand signals of an umpire to signal an infringement, or the signal given by the catcher to
the pitcher to indicate the type of pitch required.
Other non-verbal methods of communication include the use of video playback to review
performance, and the recording of statistics about a game.
2. Assertion Skills
Assertion skills involve standing up for your rights, without denying or putting down
the rights of others. Assertive people feel comfortable about expressing their feelings,
ideas and needs. In the physical activity setting, you are likely to face many challenging
situations. Some of these may be pressure situations which will require you to use
assertion skills in order to act in your own or your team’s best interests. For example,
insisting, as captain, that your team switch to zone defence to match the tactics of the
opposition, despite the fact that they prefer and are more adept at man-to-man defence.
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When you behave assertively, you accomplish the things you want to, and you feel good
about yourself. You may not always be popular, but you will gain the respect and trust of
others.
Being non-assertive generally means that you lack confidence in yourself. This passive
or submissive behaviour allows other people to have their own way, because you are
not standing up for your rights. Passive people do not state their own needs, feelings,
or ideas, and often feel hurt or angry, and experience a loss of self-esteem. They may
encourage others to take control. For example, allowing other team members to play in
your preferred position, because you fail to speak up for yourself.
At the other end of the scale is aggressive or defensive behaviour. Displaying this
type of behaviour means that you want your own way, and are only interested in your
own rights. You tend to dominate the conversation, and do not listen to others. Although
aggressive individuals appear confident, they may in fact lack confidence. Their way of
coping with this lack of confidence, is to gain attention or to release anger from unrealistic
expectations.
Both the aggressive and submissive individuals may also manipulate others to get their
own way, for example, the player who attempts a solo run to the goals to score, rather
than adhering to the team strategy. Such behaviour may result in conflict, because others
feel frustrated or pressured.
3. Relationship Skills
Our relationships with other team members will help
determine the success of the competition. When we feel
valued, we tend to want to achieve more, and perform to
the best of our ability. Members of the team can encourage
and inspire each other to achieve success as each
challenge arises. Sound relationships within the team
mean individuals speak for themselves, discuss and accept
each other’s opinions, have fun, deal with frustrations and
failure, and share experiences.
When involved in physical activity, there are a number of ways you can help others.
These include:
•• listening to their concerns
•• observing their behaviour and passing your observations on to the coach and/or
captain
•• avoiding judging others
•• showing your support verbally and physically, by demonstrating and helping
•• assisting individuals to make decisions by asking questions which may positively
direct their thinking
•• contributing honestly in matters where your thoughts are invited.
164
Glossary
Glosssary
Abduction: moving the bone away from the centre line of the body in either the horizontal or vertical plane.
Actin: a thin protein filament found in sarcomeres.
Adduction: moving the bone towards the centre line of the body in either the horizontal or vertical plane (the opposite action
to abduction).
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): when broken down it is a source of energy that can be used by the muscle cells to perform
work.
Aerobic capacity: amount of oxygen (in millilitres) that can be consumed for each kilogram of body weight.
Aerobic energy system: for exercise lasting longer than 2 to 3 minutes. This system produces large amounts energy. It can
involve the breakdown of carbohydrate, fat or protein to release large amounts of ATP.
Aerobic training: uses the aerobic energy system. Training should be specific and be both brief bouts of repeated exercise and
long-duration efforts. Common methods to improve aerobic fitness are interval, continuous and fartlek training.
Aesthetic activities: such as diving, gymnastics and figure skating, are those in which the aesthetic ‘form’, skill and creativity
are taken into account in judging performance.
Agility: ability to change the position of the body quickly and efficiently while retaining balance. Agility requires rapid
acceleration, turning, dodging and weaving.
Alveoli: resemble a bunch of grapes clustering around a stem. The walls of the alveoli are extremely thin and are surrounded
by capillaries. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs at this site after inspiration of air.
Anaerobic training: overloading the two anaerobic energy systems to produce adaptions that favour higher levels of
performance.
Angular motion: also referred to as rotation, takes place when a body moves around an axis of rotation. All parts of the body
travel through the same angle, in the same direction, in the same time.
Anticipation: ability to predict what might happen and to respond accordingly.
Aorta: largest artery in the body through which oxygenated blood flows to reach all parts of the body.
Appendicular skeleton: made up of the bones of the arms, legs, and shoulder and pelvic girdles, which support the limbs and
attach them to the body.
Applied forces: those forces generated by the action of muscles and applied to surfaces, as in the case of a running track, or
to objects, such as a ball or barbell.
Arteries: carry blood away from the heart. The blood is pushed through the arteries by surges of pressure caused by the
beating of the heart. Arteries have thick elastic walls composed of smooth muscle fibres, which permit a continuous flow of
blood.
Arterioles: small arteries that branch off the main arteries.
Assertion skills: involve standing up for your rights, without denying or putting down the rights of others.
Associative stage of learning: is the practice stage with an understanding of the task, having acquired the basic fundamentals
of the skill being learned.
ATP-CP or alactic energy system: is the most immediate source of ATP, providing energy for muscular contraction at the
commencement of a physical activity. No lactic acid is produced.
Atria: the two upper chambers of the heart which receive blood.
Atrophy: wasting of muscles if insufficient blood is supplied to them (as during a period of inactivity).
Attitudes: the feelings you have about something or someone, which predispose you to behave in a certain way towards it or
them.
Autonomous stage of learning: skills can be performed without conscious thought regarding their component parts or the
individual steps involved.
Axes: movement in a plane always occurs about an axis, running perpendicular to the plane.
Axial plane: see Transverse plane.
Axial skeleton: made up of the skull, the spine and the thorax, which form the basic central structure to support the remainder
of the skeleton.
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Index
Index
A
abduction 59-60
activities classification 1-5
adduction 59-60
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 140-3
sources of 140-3
aerobic capacity 144
VO2 max 144
aerobic pathway 143
agility 36, 113
agility run 125
air passages 78-9
bronchi 79
larynx 78-9
nasal cavity 78
pharynx 78
trachea 79
alactic energy system 142
anaerobic pathway 141-3
ATP-CP or alactic energy system 142
lactic acid system 142-3
analysing movement patterns 92-6
phases 92-6
anatomical axes 52-3
degrees of freedom 53
anatomical movement descriptors 96
anatomical planes 51-2
frontal or coronal 52
sagittal or lateral 52
transverse or axial 52
angular motion 97-9
axis of rotation 98-9
appendicular skeleton 49
arteries 69
arteriovenous oxygen difference 137
assertion skills 163-4
associative stage of learning 16
ATP-CP system 142
atrial systole 74
attitudes 153-6
stereotypes 155-6
autonomous stage of learning 16-7
axial skeleton 49
axis of rotation 98-9
horizontal of transverse axis 99
medial axis 99
vertical or longitudinal axis 98
B
balance 36-7, 114
balance test 127
bend, twist and touch test 121
biomechanics 89-105
analysing movement patterns 92-5
anatomical movement descriptors 96
motion 96-101
purpose of 89-92
safety and prevention of injuries 101-3
blood 66-8
components 67-84
blood pressure 74-7
diastolic pressure 74
measurement of 77
sphygmomanometer 74
systolic pressure 74
blood pressure and exercise 136
blood redistribution and exercise 137
blood vessels 68-70
ateries 68
capillaries 68
veins 68
body composition 112
body composition test 122-3
body types 62-5
and performance 63-4
ectomorph 63
endomorphy 62
mesomorph 63
bones 50
bone types 46
flat bones 46
irregular bones 46
long bones 46
short bones 46
breathing process 81-2
expiration 82
inspiration 81
bronchi 79
C
capillaries 69
cardiac cycle 72-3
diastole 73
systole 73
cardiac muscle 55
cardiac output 72
cardiac output and exercise 135
cardiorespiratory endurance 34, 109
cardiorespiratory endurance tests 177-81
12-minute run 118
1600 metre run 118
step test 117
cardiorespiratory response to exercise 134-9
circulatory response 134-7
respiratory response 138-9
cardiorespiratory system 66-83
circulatory system 66-77
respiratory system 78-83
circulation 74-5
circulatory response to exercise 134-7
arteriovenous oxygen difference 137
blood pressure 136
blood redistribution 137
cardiac output 135
heart rate 135
stroke volume 136
temperature regulation 137
circulatory system 66-77
blood 66-8
blood vessels 68-70
heart 70-7
circumduction 59-60
classification of activities 1-5
classification of motor skills 19-23
closed motor skills 21
cognitive stage of learning 15
communication skills 162-3
complex motor skills 21-2
conditioning phase 133
conflict resolution 165-6
continuous motor skills 20
cool-down 40, 133-4
coordination 36, 114
coordination test 126
D
demonstration/explanation 24-5
depression 59-60
diaphragm 81-2
breathing process 81-2
diastole 73
diastolic pressure 74
discrete motor skills 20
dorsiflexion 59-60
E
ectomorph 63
elevation 59-60
endomorphy 62
energy systems 140-6
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 140
aerobic capacity 144
aerobic pathway 143
anaerobic pathway 141-3
error correction 26-8
evaluating performance 186-8
eversion 59-60
expiration 82
expiratory reserve volume 83
extension 59-60
externally-paced motor skills 20
F
feedback 26-8
fine motor skills 19
fitness 107-29
definition 107-8
fitness components 34-5, 108-15
fitness testing 115-29
fitness components 34-7, 108-15
fitness-related components 113-5
health-related components 109-12
fitness profiles 128
fitness testing 115-29
agility 125
balance 127
body composition 122-3
cardiorespiratory endurance 117-8
conducting test 127
coordination 126
fitness profiles 128
flexibility 121-2
interpreting results 127-8
muscular endurance 119-20
power 123-4
presenting results 128
reaction time 126
speed 124-5
strength 120-1
fitness training 39, 130-4
cool-down 133-43
conditioning phase 133
warm-up 130-3
flat bones 46
flexed-arm hang 119-20
flexibility 35, 111-23
213