Download United States History From 1865 to the Present

CHAPTER 1
Reconstruction and the
New South (1865–1900)
1
Timeline 1863–1900
1863
▶ President Lincoln established his Reconstruction plan, the Ten-Percent Plan,
also known as “Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction”
▶ Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill
1865
▶ Congress ratified the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery
▶ President Abraham Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth; Andrew Johnson
became President
▶ Black Codes passed in the South
▶ Freedman’s Bureau created
▶ Ku Klux Klan formed in the South
▶ Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, an attempt to protect African
Americans’ rights
1867
1871
▶ President Grant reelected
▶ Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1875, which stated that African
Americans must have equal rights in public places and that they could not
be barred from serving on juries
1877
1868
▶ Congress passed the 15th Amendment, which prohibited every U.S. state government from denying a male citizen the right to vote based on his race, color,
or previous condition of servitude
▶ Congress passed the Ku Klux Klan Act
1872
1866
▶ Congress passed the First Reconstruction Act, which divided the South into five
military districts and established strict guidelines for the readmission of Southern
states to the Union
▶ Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which stated that the president needed
Senate approval to remove appointed officials
▶ President Andrew Johnson impeached but not removed from office
▶ Congress ratified the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship to everyone born in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction and protects
civil and political rights
▶ Ulysses S. Grant elected president
1870
1864
1875
▶ Rutherford B. Hayes elected president
▶ “Jim Crow” laws passed in the South
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
1890s
Activities List
What You Should Do
• Read the chapter on Reconstruction and the New South
• Review the learning activities
• Complete the Chapter 1 quiz
• Participate in the Chapter 1 discussion question
Where?
Book and Online
Online
Online
Online
Introduction
Reconstruction refers to the period following the Civil War. It involved readmitting the former
Confederate states to the Union, as well as establishing the legal, political, and social status of former
slaves. American political leaders faced many challenges during Reconstruction, and Reconstruction
plans changed several times. Members of Congress were often at odds with Presidents Lincoln and
Johnson regarding what should be done. Those disagreements prolonged Reconstruction, increased
Southern anger, and led to President Johnson’s impeachment.
Four million slaves were freed following the Civil War. The former slaves had depended on their
owners for all of their needs. They needed help as they built new lives as freedmen. Three amendments
were added to the Constitution, and civil rights legislation was enacted by Congress. Even with those legal
protections, African Americans faced discrimination, restrictions on their rights, and intimidation—
often in the form of physical violence—from the newly formed Ku Klux Klan.
Historians have a mixed view of Reconstruction. Critics argue that although former Confederate
states were readmitted to the Union, and African Americans had rights and protections on paper,
Reconstruction was ultimately a failure because Southern attitudes did not change and the U.S.
government did not enforce civil rights legislation. Since Reconstruction did not help the South
physically rebuild from Civil War damage, the South’s economy took a long time to recover as well.
Despite the economic development that accompanied industrialization after Reconstruction, most
former slaves, in addition to poor Whites, remained in a subordinate and impoverished state and
did not share in the benefits of the “New South,” a term used to describe the South’s attempts to
modernize after Reconstruction. Other historians take a more long-term approach when evaluating
Reconstruction, pointing out that while it did not succeed immediately, it did provide the foundation
for civil rights successes in the 1950s and 1960s. Additionally, African Americans were inspired
during Reconstruction to create educational and religious institutions that unified them and gave
them strength in the face of oppression.
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
• Define key terms and concepts and explain their relevance to Reconstruction and the
New South
• Describe the impact of important individuals and groups on Reconstruction and the
New South
• Evaluate the significance and relevance of the key events that took place during Reconstruction
• Analyze the successes and failures of Reconstruction
Key Terms
Black Codes: the laws passed by the former Confederate states that denied many rights to African
Americans; also known as Jim Crow Laws
Freedmen’s Bureau: a government organization established in March 1865 to help newly freed
slaves rebuild their lives
Ku Klux Klan: a group formed in Tennessee in 1865, whose members opposed civil rights for
African Americans
New South: a term used to describe the South’s attempts to modernize after Reconstruction
Pocket veto: an act of legislation that occurs when the president does not sign a bill into law before
the deadline for doing so arrives
Radical Republicans: the liberal Republican congressmen during the Reconstruction Period
Reconstruction: the period following the Civil War
Redeemers: a group of Southern Democrats who worked to oppose Reconstruction and Republican
political power in the South
Spoils system: the act of rewarding friends and supporters with government position, even if they
lack qualifications for those positions
Ten-Percent Plan: President Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction implemented in 1863, also known
as “Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction”
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
Reconstruction Plans
In December 1863, President Abraham Lincoln announced his plan for Reconstruction. The TenPercent Plan was Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction, which was implemented in 1863; his plan was also
known as the “Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction.” Lincoln was a moderate Republican and
wanted the country to be reunited as quickly and painlessly as possible. Under Lincoln’s plan, 10% of
each former Confederate state’s eligible voters in the 1860 election would be required to swear an oath
of loyalty to the United States. The oath stated that the individual would “henceforth faithfully support,
protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States, and the Union of States,” as well as “abide by
and faithfully support all laws and proclamations which have been made during the existing rebellion,
with reference to the emancipation of slaves” (Zuczek, 2006a, p. 749). Each state would also have to
abolish slavery. Once those requirements were met, the state could form a new government and rejoin
the Union. Lincoln felt that his plan would be the most effective way to reunite the Union without
alienating the South. By 1864, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas were readmitted to the Union under
the Ten-Percent Plan.
Wade-Davis Bill
The Radical Republicans, a group of liberal Republican congressmen during the Reconstruction
Period, opposed the Ten-Percent Plan. They thought it was too easy on the South. They were also
angry because Lincoln had implemented the Ten-Percent Plan on his own, instead of going through
Congress. They thought that Congress, not the president, should have the authority to readmit the
southern states to the Union. The Radical Republicans wanted retribution from the South because
of the Civil War, and wanted to erect as many obstacles as possible for southern states’ readmission to
the Union. They also wanted to break the political power of the wealthy planters who had dominated
Southern politics before the Civil War. Two Radical Republicans, Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio
and Representative Henry Winter Davis of Maryland, proposed a stricter Reconstruction plan called
the Wade-Davis Bill. The Wade-Davis Bill required a majority of a state’s eligible voters in the 1860
election to swear an oath of loyalty to the Union. Additionally, it barred anyone who had voluntarily
supported the Confederacy from participating in politics on either the state or national level. The bill
was passed by both houses of Congress in July 1864.
Lincoln pocket vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill. A pocket veto is an act of legislation that occurs
when the president does not sign a bill into law before the deadline for doing so arrives. In the case of
the Wade-Davis Bill, Congress adjourned while Lincoln held the bill, so it was automatically pocket
vetoed. Lincoln issued a proclamation stating his reasons for vetoing the bill. He thought that the
Wade-Davis Bill was too harsh on the South. He also did not want “to be inflexibly committed to
any single plan of restoration” (Zuczek, 2006b, p. 45). One of Lincoln’s major reasons for opposing
the bill was because it would require former Confederate states that had already been readmitted to
the Union under his Ten-Percent Plan to meet the new requirements. According to Lincoln, it would
be wrong to revoke the readmission of those states. He thought that doing so would only result in
“repelling and discouraging the loyal citizens” of the states who had worked so hard to establish new
governments (Zuczek, 2006b, p. 45).
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
Lincoln’s Assassination
On April 14, 1865, five days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered and the
Civil War ended, Lincoln was shot in the head while attending a play with his wife. He died the
following day. His assassin, John Wilkes Booth, supported the Confederacy and was angry that
it had lost the Civil War.
Lincoln’s assassination had a profound effect on both the North and the South. Northerners were
outraged that the president’s assassin was pro-Confederacy, and their existing anger toward the South
intensified. In many cities, people who supported Booth were physically attacked by Americans
mourning the death of the president (Sandburg, 1939, p. 350).
Lincoln’s death alarmed the South. Although they had
viewed him as a radical before the Civil War, and his election
had contributed greatly to their decision to secede from the
Union, Most Southerners thought that his Ten-Percent Plan
was reasonable. At that point, Southerners actually considered
Lincoln an ally in Reconstruction, and they were worried that
his death would allow the government to implement a harsher
Reconstruction plan. According to Southerner Elizabeth Blair,
“Those of southern born sympathies know now they have lost a
friend willing and more powerful to protect and serve them than
they can now ever hope to find again” (Goodwin, 2005, p. 744).
As it turned out, Lincoln’s successor, Vice President Andrew
Johnson, held an even more lenient view of Reconstruction
than Lincoln, although he would quickly be overpowered by the
President Abraham Lincoln was
Radical Republicans and eventually be impeached.
assassinated on April 14, 1865.
Johnson’s Plan
Following Lincoln’s assassination, Vice President Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, became
president. In 1864, Johnson had been nominated to serve as Lincoln’s running mate on the National
Union Party ticket. The National Union Party had been established in 1864 as an attempt to unite
Republicans and pro-Union Democrats. As the most prominent pro-Union Democratic politician,
Johnson seemed to be the logical choice for the vice-presidential nomination. Lincoln had easily won
reelection, defeating former Union Army General George McClellan, the Democratic candidate.
Johnson was vice president for a little over a month when Lincoln was assassinated.
Johnson, who was born in North Carolina, grew up in poverty. Although he became prosperous
after moving to Tennessee and entering politics, he remained conscious of his background and
supported the interests of poor and middle-class Southerners; he never considered himself part of the
elite planter class. Johnson owned slaves, although he voluntarily freed them in 1863. He also believed
that the Constitution protected slave ownership. However, as the pre-Civil War debate over slavery
intensified, Johnson indicated that he considered preserving the Union more important than
maintaining his own right to possess slaves. His views on slavery also changed over time. According
to Glenna R. Schroeder-Lein and Richard Zuczek (2001), “Johnson came to see slavery as a regional
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
blight that made the rich richer, stunted progress and self-motivation, and ultimately led to war” (p.
295). As a United States Senator in 1860, Johnson gave speeches opposing secession, denouncing it
as “treason” (Linder, 1999, para. 2). He remained loyal to the Union and continued his work in the
Senate, even after Tennessee seceded from the Union; he was the only Southern congressman to
support the Union.
Initially, the Radical Republicans were optimistic
about Johnson’s unexpected ascension to the presidency
and thought that he would be a stronger ally in the
White House than Lincoln had been. Johnson was
outspoken regarding his hatred for the Southern elite
planter class, blaming them for the Civil War. Shortly
after he became president, Johnson spoke about
breaking the power of the planters, stating, “Treason
must be made odious . . . traitors must be punished and
impoverished . . . their social power must be destroyed”
(Milton, 1930, p. 183). He also made statements
claiming that he intended to confiscate the property
of the planters. He wanted to distribute the property
to poor, landless Southerners who made up the bulk of
the Confederate military and had been forced to fight President Johnson had mixed views on the role of
to maintain the slave system from which they did not slavery in America.
benefit. Based on Johnson’s background and numerous
statements he had made in the past, the Radical Republicans thought that he would support their
desire to replace the Ten-Percent Plan with a harsher Reconstruction plan. Even Senator Benjamin
Wade, one of the authors of the Wade-Davis Bill, supported him, saying, “Johnson, we have faith in
you. By the gods, there will be no more trouble in running the government” (Linder, 1999, para. 4).
However, the opposite turned out to be true.
In May 1865, Johnson announced his Reconstruction plan, which would replace the TenPercent Plan. The plan was not what the Radical Republicans had expected from Johnson. Under
Johnson’s plan, Southerners who owned less than $20,000 worth of property would receive a pardon
and could participate in politics. Wealthy Southerners and former Confederate leaders could apply
for presidential pardons, which Johnson usually granted. Once a state had repealed secession and
abolished slavery, it could form a new government and be readmitted to the Union. By December
1865, all of the former Confederate states had applied for readmission to the Union. But some states
refused to comply with some of the requirements. None of the new state constitutions granted African
Americans the right to vote, and all of the new state governments enacted discriminatory policies
against African Americans. Johnson thought, like Lincoln, that the president should be responsible
for Reconstruction and did not see the need to work with Congress in devising Reconstruction
policies. Without Congress’s consent, Johnson implemented his plan.
In December 1865, Johnson announced that all of the former Confederate states had been
readmitted to the Union. Congress disagreed. They refused to allow the newly elected Southern
senators and representatives to assume their offices. Although the Radical Republicans opposed the
newly elected Southern congressmen on principle, that was not their only motivation. According to
Douglas O. Linder (1999), “Republicans also had more practical reasons to worry about Johnson’s
lenient reconstruction policy: the congressmen elected by white Southerners were certain to be
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
overwhelmingly Democrats, reducing if not eliminating the Republican majorities in both houses”
(para. 6). Several senators and representatives also joined together and said that only Congress had
the authority to readmit states to the Union. However, Johnson’s plan remained in effect until the
congressional election of 1866. The Republicans already controlled both houses of Congress, but
in 1866 their majority increased to the point where they had the two-thirds vote of both houses,
which was needed to override a presidential veto. Their majority enabled the Republicans to take
control of Reconstruction by rendering Johnson’s vetoes irrelevant.
Civil Rights
Amendments
Three civil rights amendments were added to the Constitution during Reconstruction. The 13th
Amendment, ratified in December 1865, abolished slavery. In June 1868, the 14th Amendment was
ratified. It granted citizenship, due process, and equal protection under the law to anyone born in the
United States, including former slaves. The 14th Amendment also stated that citizens could not be
deprived of “life, liberty, or property, without due process of law,” and forbade states from denying
citizens “the equal protection of the laws” (U.S. Const. amend. XIV, Section 1). Finally, the 15th
Amendment, ratified in February 1870, granted African American men the right to vote, stating that
“the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States
or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude” (U.S. Const. amend.
XV). Even though the amendment refered to “citizens,” women were not included.
The adoption of the 15th Amendment signaled the split between the civil rights movement
and the women’s rights movement. Before the Civil War, many women joined the abolitionist
cause, believing that the legal position of slaves and women, especially married women, were so
similar that advances for one group would lead to advances for the other. Women expected that if
voting rights were extended to “citizens,” they would gain the right to vote. Many women’s rights
activists were angered that the 15th Amendment applied only to men, and many of them actually
spoke out against the ratification of the 15th Amendment for that reason.
G overnment A ctions
at a
G l ance
THE 15th AMENDMENT
T
he 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited governments from denying suffrage to
any citizen on the account of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” In this context, the
definition of race was all-inclusive, and “previous condition of servitude” referred to a person’s prior status as a slave, as slaves had been unable to vote. After the amendment was passed, more African American men were active in politics, both with voting and running for offices. During an era when African
Americans and other minorities strove for equality, the 15th Amendment was an important piece of
legislation on the path to civil rights for all minorities.
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)
Legislation
Congress also passed several laws to assist former slaves and protect their newly gained rights.
The Freedmen’s Bureau was a government organization established in March 1865 to help newly
freed slaves rebuild their lives. In addition to providing freedmen with basic necessities, such as
food, clothing, education, and medical care, Freedmen’s Bureau agents went to the South, where
they helped freed slaves find homes and jobs.
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the predecessor to the 14th Amendment, and it stated that
anyone born in the United States was a citizen. The act also detailed citizens’ rights and made it
illegal to deny anyone the rights protected by the act. The president had the authority to use the
military “as shall be necessary to prevent the violation and enforce the due execution of this act”
(Civil Rights Act of 1866).
African Americans and Politics
By March 1867, just one year after the Civil Rights Act of 1866, over 700,000 African American
men had registered to vote. African Americans made up the majority of voters in Alabama, Florida,
Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. African Americans could run for office and help shape
public policy. Many African Americans were elected to office on the local, state, and national
levels. However, the success was short-lived.
Opposition to Civil Rights
Southern states soon passed laws preventing many African Americans from voting and
holding elected office. In November 1865, the former Confederate states individually adopted
Black Codes, laws passed by the former Confederate states that denied many rights to African
Americans; they were also known as Jim Crow Laws. The laws varied from state to state. Some
of the restrictions included forbidding African Americans the right to bear arms, rent or own
property, and marry Whites. In response to the Black Codes, Congress gave the Freedmen’s Bureau
the power to prosecute people who violated the civil rights of freedmen.
One of the most well-known and vocal opponents was the Ku Klux Klan, a group formed
in Tennessee in 1865, whose members opposed civil rights for African Americans. Its members,
who were primarily Confederate Civil War veterans, intimidated and sometimes physically
attacked African Americans and their white supporters. Many Southerners supported the
Klan. Robert Gooding, who lived in South Carolina during Reconstruction, recalled his
impression of the Klan:
The Ku Klux Klan was a necessary organization and did much to discharge weak white
men and ignorant Negroes from lowliness. When the Ku Klux Klan wished to get rid of
an undesirable white man or Negro, they would put an empty coffin at the undesirable
person’s front door. It usually caused the warned one to disappear. Although not a Ku Klux,
one night I witnessed a parade of white-sheeted riders and recognized my own horse in the
parade. In the morning my horse was in his stable, as usual. I asked no questions about the
occurrence until years afterward. (Dixon, 1938)
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Chapter 1: Reconstruction and the New South (1865–1900)