Download DETERMINERS

DETERMINERS
= a set of items which occur before the head noun: the article, some of the pronouns
(demonstrative, possessive, interrogative, indefinite), the numeral and some adjectives.
THE ARTICLE
A.
The Definite Article (the)
It is used in the following situations:
1. with a demonstrative function, i.e. instead of a demonstrative pronoun
e.g.
2. with a distributive function, i.e. with nouns expressing a unit
e.g.
3. with specific reference, i.e. with nouns referring to a particular object or person:
•
nouns whose reference is immediately understood, even if they were not previously
mentioned
e.g. Have you fed the dog? → at home
The flowers are very beautiful. → in the garden
•
nouns considered unique, like the sun, the moon, the earth, the air, the sky, the
north
e.g. The sun began to turn crimson.
•
nouns generally known to the people, like the mayor, the Pope, the President
e.g. What is the President doing about all this?
•
nouns denoting parts of the body
e.g.
•
nouns already mentioned or closely connected to a noun already mentioned
e.g.
•
nouns preceded by adjectives
e.g.
•
nouns followed by a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, a to-infinitive, a participle,
an adverb or a noun in an apposition
e.g.
4. with generic reference:
•
singular countable nouns
e.g. The dog is a useful animal.
How long does it take on the train?
•
collective generic nouns
e.g. He hopes to marry into the nobility.
•
nouns denoting a class of people, like the poor, the rich, the young, the unemployed
e.g. They tried to raise money for the poor.
•
nouns denoting abstractions, like the good, the evil
e.g. I don’t know what will happen in the future.
•
nationality names
e.g. The Greeks have a very long history.
•
nouns denoting musical instruments
e.g. The horn is a very difficult instrument to play.
Obs: I used to play trumpet in my school orchestra.
5. with proper nouns:
•
nouns denoting a whole family
e.g.
•
names of persons used as common nouns
e.g.
•
proper nouns with modifiers
e.g.
•
names of regions, countries, unions (sg. or pl.)
e.g. the Netherlands, the Highlands, the United Kingdom, the United States of
America, the Crimea
•
names of islands in the plural
e.g. the Hebrides, the Bahamas, the Shetlands
•
names of chains of mountains
e.g. the Alps, the Carpathians
•
names of deserts
e.g. the Sahara, the Gobi
•
names of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, channels, canals, straits, bays
e.g. the Pacific Ocean, the Black Sea, the English Channel, the Straits of Dover, the
Bay of Biscay, the Panama Canal
•
names of some capes
e.g. the Cape of Good Hope
•
names of public institutions (hotels, theatres, banks, museums, places, monuments)
e.g. the Hilton, the British Museum, the Tower, the Green Park, the Pyramids
•
names of ships, trains, planes
e.g. the Orient Express, the Queen Mary
•
names of some English newspapers or magazines
e.g. the Times, the Observer
6. in front of some general determiners like few, little, many, other
e.g.
7. in expressions like by the way, to tell the time, to take the trouble, on the one hand …
on the other hand, to play the fool, in the end, at the moment
B.
The Indefinite Article (a / an)
It is used in the following cases:
1)
with a numerical function, i.e. instead of the numeral one
e.g.
2)
with specific reference, determining:
•
nouns considered as a single item of a class
e.g.
•
nouns denoting a profession, class, religion, situation
e.g.
•
nouns already mentioned or implied (in exclamations)
e.g.
3)
with generic reference
e.g.
4)
with proper names
e.g.
5)
in expressions like to be in a hurry, to take an interest in, to have a headache, to have
a chance, on an average, all of a sudden, as a matter of fact, to have a good time
C. The Zero Article
It is used in the following situations:
1)
2)
with generic reference
•
with uncountable nouns (e.g.)
•
with plural nouns (e.g.)
with proper nouns denoting:
•
persons – even when accompanied by an adjective or a noun expressing title, rank,
profession, family relations, etc. (e.g. Mary, old John, President Lincoln, Captain
Smith, Doctor Ford, aunt Jane)
Exceptions: the Prince of Wales, Edward the Confessor, the famous Captain Cook
•
continents, countries, counties or towns (e.g. Medieval Europe, Elisabethan England,
ancient Rome)
Exceptions: the Antarctic, the Hague
•
lakes (e.g. Lake Michigan, Loch Ness)
Exception: the Lake of Lucerne
•
mountains (e.g. Mount Everest)
•
bays, capes, harbours (e.g. Hudson Bay, Cape Horn, Pearl Harbour)
•
buildings, streets, places (e.g. Covent Garden, Oxford Street, Hyde Park, Waterloo
Bridge)
3)
•
months, days of the week, festivals (e.g. April, Friday, Easter)
•
magazines and periodicals (e.g. Time, Newsweek, Punch)
in expressions like day by day, in case of, to catch fire, at sunset, to be in trouble, by
mistake, to shake hands, in silence
4)
other uses
•
family relations or familiar persons with unique reference (e.g. Mother is doing the
dishes. Cook is old now.)
•
a profession or an office held at one time by one person only (e.g. They appointed him
manager.)
•
meals – in a general sense or referring to the time of the meal (e.g. We have dinner at
7.)
•
the nouns school, church, hospital, prison, sea, when the use of that building or place
is implied
•
seasons (e.g. Winter is coming.)
•
languages (e.g. He speaks French fluently)
•
means of transportation preceded by the preposition by (e.g. They travel by bus.)
•
nouns determined by a cardinal numeral (e.g. Room 9 has been taken by a stranger.)
NOTE: Leaders try to fix role for new force.
THE PRONOUN
 some pronouns can be both determiners and substitutes of nouns/NPs (the possessive, the
demonstrative, the interrogative and the indefinite pronouns)
 others function only as noun/NP substitutes: personal, reciprocal, relative and some selfpronouns
I.
-
The Personal Pronoun
Personal pronouns replace nouns or NPs which precede (e.g. Mary said that she was busy.) or
follow them (e.g. When he had time, John read detective novels.)
-
They have person, number, gender and case distinctions
e.g.
-
Some forms of the personal pronouns have special characteristics and uses:
I is always written with a capital letter
You may be used with an indefinite meaning
We is sometimes used instead of the first person singular pronoun and it is called:
•
royal “we”: when a king or a queen refers to him-/herself
•
editorial “we”: in formal, especially scientific writing
•
inclusive authorial “we”: in serious writing, from a wish to avoid sounding egotistical
(e.g. We believe that immediate action should be taken.)
•
rhetorical “we”: in the collective sense of “the nation”, “the party”, etc.
We may replace you when speaking to children or sick people (e.g.) and can be also used in
reference to a third person (e.g.).
They may be employed with the meaning of “people” or in co-reference with indefinite
pronouns in order to avoid the use of he or she.
It is used in the following cases:
1)
as a substitute for a singular noun denoting a thing or an animal
e.g.
2)
to refer to the content of a whole sentence
e.g.
3)
with impersonal meaning in statements concerning time, distance, weather, etc.
e.g.
4)
with an introductory/anticipatory function introducing:
-
the subject expressed by an infinitive, a gerund or a subject clause
e.g.
-
the object expressed by an infinitive or an object clause
e.g.
5)
as a formal, meaningless object after some verbs
e.g.
6)
as an emphatic pronoun, emphasizing any part of speech, except for the verb
e.g.
7)
to identify an unknown person
e.g.
II.
A.
-
The Possessive Pronoun
The possessive pronoun as determiner (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their)
It agrees with the possessor in number, person and gender (e.g. Jane has lost her pen. She is
their friend.)
-
It may refer to parts of the body or personal belongings (e.g. She hurt her leg. He took off his
hat.)
Obs: The definite article replaces the possessive pronoun:
e.g. (1) They hit him in the back. He was shot in the leg.
(2) The house is quiet with the children away.
-
The meaning of the possessive may be intensified by own (e.g. I did it with my own hands.)
-
In an enumeration, the possessive is not repeated (e.g. My pens and pencils are in that box.)
Obs: My friend and my neighbour have arrived.
You are my friend and my adviser.
-
B.
Syntactically, the possessive pronoun as determiner is an attribute.
The possessive pronoun as noun substitute (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs = the
genitive forms of the personal pronoun)
-
The “double possessive” is also possible (e.g. She is a cousin of mine.)
Obs: This/That brother of yours is in trouble again.
-
These possessive pronouns may function as subject, object, predicative, prepositional object
or attribute (e.g.)
III.
The –self Pronouns
They are formed by adding - self / -selves to the determiner possessives (myself, yourself,
ourselves, yourselves) or to the objective case forms of the personal pronouns (himself, herself,
itself, themselves).
A.
The Reflexive –self Pronouns
-The subject and the reflexive pronoun are in co-referential relation (e.g. I’m teaching myself
French. He shaves himself every morning.)
1.
The reflexive pronouns occur in the following cases:
with verbs that are always reflexive: pride oneself, absent oneself, ingratiate oneself,
demean oneself
e.g.
2.
with verbs that are reflexive in certain meanings: behave, avail, enjoy, apply, acquit
e.g.
3.
with some verbs that are optionally reflexive: dress, wash, prove, shave, prepare, hide,
worry
e.g.
4.
whenever the object or the predicative is identical with the subject of the sentence
e.g.
5.
after the prepositions among and between, with a reciprocal value
e.g.
Obs.1: If a preposition expresses locality, spatial relation, the self-pronouns are not used (e.g.
She placed the case beside her. He took the book with him.)
Obs.2: Reflexive pronouns are sometimes used instead of personal pronouns (e.g. She
suspected they recognized her sister but not herself. My wife and myself were invited to the
party.)
-
Reflexive pronouns enter a number of set expressions: of oneself, to come to oneself, to do
something with oneself, to speak for oneself, to keep to oneself
-
The reflexive pronoun can function as direct object, indirect object, prepositional object or
predicative (e.g.)
B.
-
The Emphatic –self Pronouns
They are used for the sake of emphasis ⇒ they can be omitted without destroying the sense of
the sentence (e.g. I saw him do it [myself].)
-
They are placed either at the end of the sentence or immediately after the noun/pronoun (e.g.
You yourself told me the story.)
-
When emphatic pronouns are preceded by the preposition by, they have the meaning of
“alone”, “without help” (e.g. He lives all by himself.)
-
Emphatic pronouns function as appositions
Obs: Oneself may be a reflexive or an emphatic pronoun.
IV.
-
The Reciprocal Pronouns
Traditionally, each other involves two persons and one another – more than two persons.
However, this rule is not always observed in usage.
-
They are used after transitive verbs, but also after intransitive verbs and prepositions
e.g.
-
They may have possessive forms
e.g.
V. The Demonstrative Pronoun
- The demonstratives are this, that for the singular, and these, those for the plural. Some
grammarians consider such and same as demonstratives, too.
- They are used both spatially and temporally → this and these for nearness, that and those for
remoteness.
A.
-
The demonstrative pronoun as determiner
The demonstratives agree in number with the nouns they determine, but not in gender or case
(e.g. that man, those jobs)
-
This and that can have an emotive or familiar colouring (e.g. This man Brown told me … . I
hate that Brown.)
-
In familiar style → special uses:
e.g. (1) Then I saw this man coming up to me.
(2) It gives you that great feeling of eternity.
-
This is used in phrases such as this day week, this day last year, this time next month
-
Such and same are used with both countable and uncountable nouns (such a day, such
questions, such nonsense, the same girl(s), the same information)
B.
1.
The demonstrative pronoun as noun substitute is used:
with an anaphoric function, referring to a noun or to a sentence mentioned previously (e.g.
He will probably pass the exam. That will please his parents.)
2.
with an cataphoric function, referring to a noun that follows (e.g. You can make a cake like
this: take a pound of flour and mix it with a cup of milk, then …)
3.
with a deictic function, pointing to or specifying an object (e.g. This is where I live. These
are my sons.)
-
Such can also be a noun substitute (e.g. Such is life.)
-
Demonstrative pronouns can be preceded by a limited number of determiners or by ofconstructions (e.g. Why are you telling me all this? He gave me half [of] that. I’d like both
[of] these.)
-
They are sometimes post-modified by place adverbials or relative clauses (e.g. These over
here will have to leave. Those who tried hard were rewarded.)
VI. The Indefinite Pronoun
A.
1.
a)
The indefinite pronoun as determiner
some (of) has the following uses:
in affirmative sentences
•
with uncountable or plural countable nouns, to express an indefinite quantity or
number (e.g.)
•
with singular countable nouns meaning a particular but unidentified person or thing
(e.g.)
•
with singular countable nouns which express temporal notions (e.g.)
•
with uncountable nouns and plural nouns to suggest contrast (e.g.)
•
with a numeral meaning “approximately” (e.g.)
•
b)
with singular nouns, in familiar English, meaning “of considerable worth” (e.g.)
in interrogative sentences, if an affirmative answer is expected, or in invitations, requests
(e.g.)
c)
2.
in negative sentences, when its meaning is affirmative (e.g.)
any (of) is used in:
a)
interrogative sentences (e.g.)
b)
sentences with a negative meaning
•
with words negative in form like not, never, no, neither, nor (e.g.)
•
with words negative in meaning like hardly, without, little, few, only, seldom,
difficulty, to fail, to prevent, to avoid (e.g.)
c)
conditional sentences or sentences which imply doubt (e.g.)
d)
affirmative sentences, meaning “it doesn’t matter who, which or what” (e.g.)
e)
negative sentences, meaning “normal, ordinary” (e.g.)
3.
no is used:
a)
with singular or plural nouns, meaning “not any” (e.g.)
b)
with singular nouns, meaning “not a”, “nothing of a” (e.g.)
c)
with a numeral (e.g.)
d)
in expressions like in no time, no wonder, no end (of), by no means
4.
none (of) is used for persons and things, meaning “not one” or “not any” (e.g.)
5.
much (of) and many (of)
They are preferred in negative and interrogative sentences (e.g. Not many people know about it.
He hasn’t got much time.)
In affirmative sentences, they are used in:
•
formal statements (e.g. Much money is spent on health care.)
•
time references (e.g. They’ve known each other for many years.)
•
when they are preceded by as, so, too, rather (e.g. Take as many books as you like. I have so
many things to tell you.)
Obs1: In informal English, in affirmative sentences, they are replaced by plenty of, a lot of/lots
of, a good/great deal of, a large quantity/number of (e.g. There is plenty of time to do it. Lots
of books were written on this topic.)
Obs2: many a/an is followed by a singular countable noun (e.g. War brought misery to many an
innocent child.)
6.
(a) little (of) and (a) few (of)
e.g. I have (a) little spare time.
She has (a) few good friends.
Few and little can be intensified by adverbs like very, extremely. (e.g. Extremely few TV sets
have been sold this month. They have very little money.)
Obs: Quite a few people believe in such things.
7.
•
all (of) and both (of)
All (of) can be used with singular uncountable nouns or with plural countable nouns (All the
money is gone. All of your friends are nice people.)
Before singular nouns, all is frequently replaced by whole, which is less formal. (The whole
world condemned that aggression.)
•
Both (of) applies to only two persons/things; it is used with plural nouns (Both the men were
found guilty. Both of his children can sing very well.)
In informal English, the definite article is dropped after both; both can also be replaced by
two (both actors or the two actors).
All and both can take a position after the noun they determine (e.g.).
8. every and each (of) (→ distributives)
•
Every is used with singular countables, when the total number exceeds two (e.g. He has every
reason to do it.)
Obs: All the students / Every student answered correctly.
Every may be preceded by not, nearly, almost (e.g. Not every / Nearly every / Almost
every musician can play this.)
Every can be used in phrases like every other day, every five minutes, etc.
•
Each (of) is used with singular countable nouns and refers to two or more (e.g. Each of the
students has written an essay.)
9. either (of) and neither (of) (→ distributives)
They refer to two people or things.
•
Either (of) means “one or the other of the two” (e.g. Take either half; they are the same.)
Obs: There were trees on either side of the river.
•
Neither (of) means “not one nor the other of the two” (e.g. I can agree in neither case.)
10. (the) other and another
•
Other is used with singular or plural nouns and means “different” (e.g.), “additional” (e.g.).
•
The other has the meaning “the remaining one(s)” (e.g.) or “opposite” (e.g.).
(The) other is used in phrases like the other day, on the one hand … on the other hand, in
other words, etc.
•
Another means “an additional one” (e.g.) or “a different one” (e.g.).
11. several (of) and enough (of)
•
Several (of) is used with plural countable nouns, meaning “three or more, but not many” (e.g.
There are several new people in this office.) or “separate” (e.g. They went their several
ways.)
•
Enough (of) is used with singular uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns and its
meaning is “as much/many as necessary” (e.g. There is enough coffee for everybody. We
have enough glasses for the party.)
B. The indefinite pronoun as noun substitute
1.
•
some, something, somebody, someone
Some substitutes an uncountable noun or a plural countable noun in affirmative sentences
(e.g. If you have no money, I’ll lend you some.)
Obs: I’ve just baked apple pie. Will you have some?
•
Somebody and someone substitute singular nouns denoting persons (e.g. There is somebody
at the door.)
•
Something refers to a singular noun denoting an object, event, etc. (e.g. I want something to
eat.)
2.
any, anybody, anyone, anything – in interrogative, negative or conditional sentences
•
Any substitutes a countable (singular or plural) or an uncountable noun (e.g. I left my
cigarettes at home. Do you have any?)
•
Anybody and anyone – for nouns denoting persons (e.g. Is there anyone/anybody in the
room?)
•
Anything – for nouns denoting objects, events (e.g. There isn’t anything I want to ask
you.)
3.
none, nobody, no one, nothing – in negative sentences
Obs: There are none so deaf as those who will not hear. None is perfect.
4.
everybody, everyone, everything
Every can combine with one and, for emphasis, also with single to refer to both persons and
things (e.g. They played several matches, but lost every single one.)
NOTE
- The compound pronouns with body, one, thing are singular and have concord with a singular
verb.
- They can be used in the genitive case (e.g. There is somebody’s cap on the floor.)
- They can be followed by else (e.g. Nobody else came.)
- They can be postmodified by adjectives, prepositional phrases and relative clauses.
5.
much, many
6.
(a) little and (a) few
7.
all – for singular or plural nouns (e.g. He is afraid that all is lost. All were glad when it was
over.)
8.
each – for countable nouns denoting two or more; it takes a singular verb (e.g. Each has done
his best.)
9.
both, either and neither
•
Both takes a plural verb (e.g. Both were glad to see me)
•
Either and neither take a singular verb (e.g. He offered two solutions and I think that
[n]either is good.)
10. the other, (the) others, another
the other = “the second of two”; the others = “the remaining ones”; others = “different” or
“people beside oneself”; another = “an additional or a different one”
11. several and enough
•
Several – for plural countable nouns (e.g. There are some guests in this room and several in
the other.)
•
Enough can substitute uncountable or plural countable nouns (e.g. I can’t eat any more cakes.
I had enough.)
12. one(s)
•
One substitutes a noun standing for a member of a class (e.g. I’ve lost my pen. Can you lend
me one?) or for a person (e.g. One must do one’s best.)
•
Ones is used instead of a plural noun to avoid repetition (e.g. I prefer bright colours to dull
ones.)
VII. The Interrogative Pronoun
A. The interrogative pronoun as determiner
what, which, whose – used in direct or indirect interrogative sentences for persons or for things
•
What refers to a selection from an unlimited number (e.g.)
It is also used in exclamatory sentences (e.g.).
•
Which (of) refers to a selection from a limited number (e.g.)
•
Whose indicates possession (e.g.)
B. The interrogative pronoun as noun substitute
•
Who, whom, whose refer only to persons (e.g. Who wrote that letter?)
Whom is used as a direct, indirect or prepositional object (e.g.)
Whose is the possessive of who (e.g.)
•
What refers to things and activities (e.g.)
It is also used to ask for a person’s profession, status (e.g.), or for a description (e.g.)
•
Which is selective and indicates a choice from a limited number; it is used for things and
persons (e.g.)
Obs: Who ever heard of such a silly idea? What ever were you thinking of to suggest such a
plan?
Interrogative pronouns are used in a number of phrases: what about, and what not, to know
what’s what, what-d’ you-call him/her/it/them, what’s his/her/its name, what with …, what
if?, to give smb. what for
VIII. The Relative Pronouns
They introduce relative clauses and refer to a NP in the main clause ⇒ they are used as noun
substitutes (except for whose).
•
Who, whom, whose
-
who – used of persons or of animals, if the animal is named (e.g. The man who spoke was my
uncle. Our dog Jack, who had been lost for two days, was found by ...)
-
whom – used in the objective case or after a preposition (e.g. He is one of the men whom I
feel I can trust.)
Obs: Whom can be replaced by who or even omitted in colloquial speech (e.g. The man [who] he
spoke to was Jim.)
-
whose – is the genitive case of who and can be used for both persons and things (e.g. The boy,
whose father is a teacher, is good at maths. The room, whose walls are painted blue, looks
very nice.)
•
Which – used for things and animals (e.g. The current, which is very rapid, makes the river
dangerous. The dog which was lost has been found.)
It is also used when the antecedent is a whole sentence (e.g.)
Obs: The team, which played so well last season, now occupies the last position.
The team, who are just getting their tickets, will meet on the platform.
•
That refers to both persons and things, in the nominative or objective case, singular or plural.
It is generally used after:
-
superlatives (e.g.)
-
ordinal numerals (e.g.)
-
indefinite pronouns (e.g.)
-
the same, the only, the very (e.g.)
THE NUMERAL
I. The Cardinal Numeral
- Cardinal numerals denote an abstract whole number or a number of objects. The numeral
one co-occurs with singular countable nouns and all the other numerals co-occur with plural
countable nouns.
e.g. She has one sister and two brothers.
- Ways of forming the cardinal numerals.
- The numerals hundred, thousand and million do not get the –s when preceded by a
definite number.
Obs. thousands of people.
-
Higher numerals
-
Cardinal numerals occur either before the noun (e.g. twenty books), or after the noun, to
indicate order (e.g. bus 33); they can be followed by an –of phrase if the noun is preceded by
another determiner (e.g. Two of their children abandoned school.)
-
Cardinal numerals can be preceded by determiners (e.g.)
-
To express an indefinite number, we can use the noun odd (e.g. We received twenty-odd
books. The computer costs six hundred odd pounds.)
Obs. Other means of indicating approximate numbers
-
Ways of reading the sign 0
II. The Ordinal Numeral
-
Ordinal numerals show the place which objects occupy in a series
e.g. John was the first person that I met there.
-
Ways of forming the ordinal numerals
-
As a rule, ordinal numerals occur before the noun (e.g. April is the fourth month of the year.),
but also after it, when they indicate order in the succession to the throne or to a title (e.g.
Richard the Second).
Obs1: the expression the nth
Obs2: the words umpteen and umpteenth
III. The Fractional Numeral
The fractional numeral denotes a specific number or quantity. It is of two main types:
a) Common fractions: expressed by cardinal numbers for the numerator and by ordinals for the
denominator (e.g. 2/5 two fifths, 2 5/7 two and five sevenths); as determiners, they are
followed by an –of phrase (e.g. three fifths of the population).
b) Decimal fractions: written with a point after the whole number; the whole numerals are
read out in the usual way, but the numerals to the right of the point are read out as single digits
(e.g. 77.83 seventy-seven point eight three)
Obs: 0.72 ton vs. 1.72 tons
IV. The Multiplicative Numeral
The multiplicative numerals show the proportion in which a quantity has increased. The first
number is single and the rest are formed with the suffix –fold: e.g. twofold (double), threefold
(triple), fourfold, etc.
Obs: adverbial numerals