Download Module 6.1 Remembering Lecture Outline

CHAPTER 6
Memory
MODULE 6.1 REMEMBERING LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
II.
Human Memory as an Information Processing System (Figure 6.1)
A. Memory encoding: taking in information
1. We encode information in different ways including acoustically, visually, and
semantically
B. Memory storage: retaining information in memory
C. Memory retrieval: accessing stored information
1. The encoding specificity principle—states that retrieval of particular memories
will be more successful when cues available during recall are similar to those
that were present when the information was originally encoded
2. Context-dependent memory—the tendency for information to be better recalled
in the context in which it was originally learned
3. State-dependent memory—occurs when people have better recall of information
when they are in the same physiological or psychological state as when they first
encoded or learned the information LB 6.1
Memory Stages (Concept Chart 6.1, Figure 6.5)
A. Sensory memory: getting to know what’s out there
1. Sensory register holds information in memory for a very short time (3–4 seconds
tops)
a.
Iconic memory—visual stimuli (very vivid visual memory is called eidetic
imagery or photographic memory)
b. Echoic memory—auditory stimuli
B. Short-term, or working memory: the mind’s blackboard
1. Storage system that permits retention and processing of sensory information for
about 30 seconds
2. People can normally retain a maximum of about 7 items in short-term memory at
one time LB 6.2
3. Chunking is used for better recall
4. Short-term memory can be extended by engaging in maintenance rehearsal
5. Three components (Baddeley & Hitch) (Figure 6.3)
a.
Phonological loop (speech based)
b. Visuospatial sketchpad (visual and spatial images)
c.
Central executive (control unit)
C. Long-term memory: preserving the past
1. Storage system that allows retention of information beyond STM periods
2. LTM is virtually limitless in the amount it can hold
3.
Consolidation—the process by which the brain converts unstable, short-term
memories into lasting, stable memories (REM and deep, slow wave sleep are
important) LB 6.3
4. The semantic network model—describes the organizational structure of LTM in
terms of a network of interlinking concepts LB 6.4 (Figure 6.4)
III. What We Remember: The Contents of Long-Term Memory (Figure 6.6)
A. Declarative memory: “knowing that”
1. Semantic memory (memory of facts, knowledge, and beliefs)
2. Episodic or autobiographical memory (memory of life events and experiences)
3. Retrospective memory (memory of past events)
4. Prospective memory (memory of future events)
B. Procedural memory: “knowing how”
1. Procedural memory is memory of how to do things, such as riding a bike
2. Procedural memory is more implicit because it is engaged without any conscious
effort LB 6.5
IV. The Reliability of Long-Term Memory: Can We Trust Our Memories?
A. The constructionist theory—holds that memory is a process of reconstructing past
events and experiences, not of replaying them exactly as they occurred
1. Racial biases in memory schemas—biases about people can occur based on
memory organization
B. People are generally better able to recall information that is consistent with their
existing schema
1. A memory schema—an organized knowledge structure, such as a set of beliefs,
that reflects one’s past experiences, expectancies, and knowledge about the
world LB 6.6
C. Flashbulb memories: what were you doing when…?
1. Emotionally arousing events may leave vivid, lasting impressions in memory,
which seem permanently etched into our brains LB 6.7
D. Eyewitness testimony: “What did you see on the day in question?”
1. Memory reports of eyewitnesses may be flawed, even when eyewitnesses are
convinced of the accuracy of their recollections LB 6.8
2. Misinformation effect—distortions caused by events that occur between the
event and the recall of the event (Figure 6.7)
3. Accuracy of eyewitness testimony involves the following factors:
a.
Ease of recall
b. Degree of confidence
c.
General knowledge about a subject
d. Racial identification
e.
Types of questions (e.g., leading)
f.
Facial characteristics (e.g., distinct features)
E. Exploring Psychology: Are Recovered Memories Credible? (See Exploring
Psychology, LB 6.9)
1. Research showing that false memories may seem as real as the actual events calls
into question the credibility of recovered memories of childhood abuse
2. Though some recovered memories of childhood abuse may be genuine, we lack
the tools to determine which are true
MODULE 6.2 FORGETTING LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
Decay Theory: Fading Impressions (Concept Chart 6.2)
A. The oldest theory of forgetting, decay theory, holds that memory traces laid down in
the brain begin to decay naturally with the passage of time (Figure 6.8) LB 6.10
1. Ebbinghaus tested memory with nonsense syllables (See Reality Check, LB
6.11)
II. Interference Theory: When Learning More Leads to Remembering Less
A. Interference theory posits that memories held in STM or LTM may be pushed aside by
other memories LB 6.12 (Figure 6.9)
1. Retroactive interference—material is learned but before it is recalled new
information interferes with old
2. Proactive interference—caused by the influence of previously learned material
on the retention of new information
a.
Sleep on it. Studying material before sleep may help you retain.
b. Rehearse fresh memories.
c.
Give yourself a break. Let your recent memories have a chance to
consolidate.
d. Avoid sequential study of similar material.
3. The serial position effect explains why we are more likely to forget the middle
items in a list than those at the beginning or end
a.
Primacy effect—the tendency to recall items better when they are learned
first
b. Recency effect—the tendency to recall items better when they are learned
last LB 6.13
III. Retrieval Theory: Forgetting as a Breakdown in Retrieval
A. Focuses on the role of retrieval failure—the inability to access stored memories
B. Encoding failure (Figure 6.10)
C. Lack of retrieval cues: what’s his name? (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)
IV. Motivated Forgetting: Memories Hidden from Awareness
A. Sigmund Freud theorized that the psychological defense mechanism of repression, or
motivated forgetting, banished threatening material from the consciousness
V. Measuring Memory: How It Is Measured May Determine How Much Is Recalled
A. The methods used to measure memory, such as recall tasks and recognition tasks,
affect how much we are able to recall LB 6.14
VI. Amnesia: Of Memories Lost or Never Gained
A. Types of amnesia
1. Retrograde amnesia—the loss of memory of past events
2. Anterograde amnesia—the loss of the ability to form or store new memories LB
6.15, LB 6.16
3. Childhood amnesia is a normal phase of development and accounts for the lack
of memory for events occurring before the age of 3 or 4 LB 6.17
B. Causes of amnesia
1. Physical such as blows to the head, degenerative brain diseases, blockage of
blood to the brain, infectious diseases, chronic alcoholism
2. Psychological (dissociative amnesia) such as trauma
MODULE 6.3 THE BIOLOGY OF MEMORY LECTURE
OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
Brain Structures in Memory: Where Do Memories Reside? (Figure 6.11) (Concept Chart
6.3)
A. Karl Lashley attempted to track down the elusive engram, the physical trace or etching
in the brain where he believed a memory is stored
B. Memories are stored in complex networks of interconnected brain cells called
neuronal networks LB 6.18
C. The hippocampus: where new memories are formed
1. Important role in converting STM into declarative LTM
2. Damage to the hippocampus may result in anterograde amnesia
II. Strengthening Connections Between Neurons: The Key to Forming Memories
A. The key to forming memories may lie in strengthening the interconnections between
the neurons that form neuronal networks
B. Scientists suspect that long-term potentiation (LTP) or an increase in the strength of
synaptic connection may be needed for LTM to occur
III. Genetic Bases of Memory
A. Scientists have begun to unravel the genetic bases of memory, which may lead to the
development of safe drugs that can help preserve or restore memory functioning LB
6.19
MODULE 6.4 APPLICATION: POWERING UP YOUR
MEMORY LECTURE OUTLINE
Refer to the Concept Web at the end of this manual for a visual synopsis of all concepts presented
in this module.
I.
II.
Using Mnemonics to Improve Memory
A. A mnemonic is a device for improving memory
B. Acronyms and acrostics LB 6.20
1. Acronym is a word composed of the first letters of a series of words (HOMES)
2. Acrostic is a verse or saying in which the first letter of each word stands for
something else (Every Good Boy Does Fine)
C. Popular sayings and rhymes (fall back, spring forward)
D. Visual cues and visual imagery
E. Chunking
General Suggestions for Improving Memory
A. Pay attention
B. Practice, practice, practice
C. Use external memory aids LB 6.21
D. Link time-based tasks to external cues
E. Mentally rehearse what you intend to do
F.
G.
H.
Enhance context-dependent memory effects
Control stress
Adopt healthy habits