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TEST1KEY: Easy Question1. Findandcommentonatleastthreeinstancesofverbalstemallomorphyinthefirst twoparagraphs. RichardWalkerha-sbeentryingtoconquerageingsincehewasa26-year-oldfree- lovinghippie.Itwasthe1960s,aneramarkedbyyouth:VietnamWarprotests, psychedelicdrugs,sexualrevolutions.TheyoungWalkerrelishedthecultureof exultation,ofjoiedevivre,andyetwasalsoacutelyawareofitspassing.Hewas hauntedbytheknowledgethatageingwoul-deventuallystealawayhisvitality– thatwitheachpassingdayhisbodywasslightlylessrobust,slightlymoredecayed. Oneeveninghewen(-)tforadriveinhisconvertibleandvowedthatbyhis40th birthday,hewouldfindacureforageing. Walkerbe-cameascientisttounderstandwhyhewasmortal.“Certainlyitwasn’t duetooriginalsinandpunishmentbyGod,asIwastaugh-tbynunsincatechism,” hesay-s.“No,itwastheresultofabiologicalprocess,andthereforeiscontrolledby amechanismthatwecanunderstand.”Scientistshavepublishedseveralhundred theoriesofageing,andhavetiedittoawidevarietyofbiologicalprocesses.Butno oneyetunderstandshowtointegrateallofthisdisparateinformation. SEEUNDERLINEDFORMSABOVE.Theexamplesfeaturestemallomorphy,i.e.different shapesofthestemofalexeme,inthepresent(e.g.say-s/ha-s)orthepasttense(taugh-t) (sub-)paradigm.Therearealsoinstancesofsuppletion,whichcanbeviewedasanextreme caseofallomorphy,wherethetwostemsdon’thaveanysimilarityinformwhatsoever, sincetheycomefromoriginallydifferentlexemes(e.g.be-was,go-went–esp.commonwith frequentverbssuchas‘be’and‘go’).Thepasttense/preteritebecameisaspecialcaseof morphophonemicalternationwherethechangeoftherootvowel(ablaut)markstense(a strong/irregularverb).Intheotherforms,thededicated(pastorpresent)stemallomorph isaccompaniedbyapastsuffixora3sgpresentsuffix. Question2. Inthefirsttwosentencesofthefirstparagraph,findthreewordswhichcontain differentstressedbackmonophthongsandtranscribethemphonemically. Notethatthethreewordsmustcontaindifferentstressedvowels.BothBritish(RP)and American(GA)pronunciationvariantsareacceptable(butnot“mixed”variants). Wordscontainingstressedbackmonophthongs: WalkerRP/wɔːkǝ/GA/wɔːkǝr/,/wɑːkǝr/ warRP/wɔː/,GA/wɔːr/ conquerRP/kɒŋkǝ/,GA/kɑːŋkǝr/ markedRP/mɑːkt/GA/mɑːrkt/ youthRP,GA/juːƟ/ revolutionsRP,GA/revǝluːʃǝnz/,/revǝljuːʃǝnz/(ortherespectivevariantswitha syllabicn̩ ) Question3. Indicateallsuppletiveformsinthe4thparagraphanddescribethephenomenonof suppletion.Giveyourownexampleofsuppletion. Thesuppletiveformsinpar.4are:is,was,best,are(inthetextitiscontracted,e.g.we’re) andwent.Suppletiontakesplacewhenthesyntaxrequiresaformofalexemethatisnot 1 morphologicallypredictable.Inotherwords,suppletionoccurswhenaformthatismissing fromaninflectionalparadigmisreplacedbyaformwithadifferentroot.Forinstance,the formwentexistsalongsidetheformsgo,goes,going,gone.Othersuppletiveforms,in additiontothoseinthetext,areworseandworstthatexistalongsidebad. Medium Question4. Compareanddiscussthefollowingtwophrasesfromthepointofviewoftheir semantics,morphologyandsyntax:itspassing(paragraph1)andpunishmentbyGod (paragraph2). TheheadnounsofbothNPsarenominalisationsoforiginallyverballexemesderivedwith thederivationalsuffixes–ingand–mentrespectively.Thegenitivedeterminerinthefirst NPisanexampleofasubjectgenitivewhichwouldcorrespondtotheSubjectinaclause“It passed/passes”(intransitive).In‘punishmentbyGod’,thesamerelationshipisexpressed byapost-posedPPcomplement,sotherelationshipisnolongerexpressedbymorphology (genitivecaseending)butbysyntax(functionword).Thisrepresentsamajorshiftfrom synthetictoanalyticalinthehistoryofEnglish(=BONUSPOINT).Semantically,‘God’isan agentintheparaphrase“Godpunisheds.o.’(transitive),but‘it’isnotanagentin‘it passed/passes’,astheverbdenotesaprocess,notanaction. Question5. Inparagraph1,findatleastonecontent(appositive)that-clauseandinacoupleof sentencesexplainhowitdiffersintermsofsemanticsandsyntaxfromrelativethat- clauses. RichardWalkerhasbeentryingtoconquerageingsincehewasa26-year-oldfree-loving hippie.Itwasthe1960s,aneramarkedbyyouth:VietnamWarprotests,psychedelicdrugs, sexualrevolutions.TheyoungWalkerrelishedthecultureofexultation,ofjoiedevivre,and yetwasalsoacutelyawareofitspassing.Hewashauntedbytheknowledgethatageing wouldeventuallystealawayhisvitality–thatwitheachpassingdayhisbodywasslightly lessrobust,slightlymoredecayed.Oneeveninghewentforadriveinhisconvertibleand vowedthatbyhis40thbirthday,hewouldfindacureforageing. Theunderlinedsequencerepresentstwoappositive(content)clauses,coordinated asyndetically.Therearenoobviousstructuraldifferencesbetweenthethreetypesof clausesbutappositive(content)clausesdifferfrombothrelativeandnominalclausesin meaningandfunction.Theyarelikerelativeclausesinthattheyattachtoanantecedent (preceding)nounbutunlikemodifyingrelativeclauseswhichdeterminethereferenceof theantecedentnoun(defining/restrictiverelativeclauses)oraddspecifying,non-essential informationtothereferentofthenounphrase(non-defining/non-restrictiverelative clauses),appositiveclausesspecifythesenseoftheantecedentnoun.Theyrevealfeatures ofthesemanticvolumeoftheheadnoun.Unlikenominalclausestheycannotontheirown performnominalclausefunctions(subjectoranykindofobjectorpredicativecomplement) andareintroducedintosentencestructurebyasemanticallyrestrictedsetofheadnouns (e.g.plan,idea,suggestion,knowledge,etc.).Unlikerelativethatclauses,contentclausesfunction ascomplementstotheheadnounswhichlicensethem. Question6. Discussthegenitivemeaningsexpressedinthefollowingnounphrases:thegirls’DNA (par.3),awoman’sovaries(par.4)andhislife’swork(par.4).Giveappropriate sententialorphrasalanaloguesofeachphrase. 2 Thephrasesthegirls’DNAandawoman’sovariescanbeappropriatelydiscussedas examplesofthepartitivegenitive,whichexpressespartofthewhole.Thus,theunderlying structuresofthetwophraseswillbe:‘theDNAwhichispartofthegirls’(thegirlshave DNA)and‘theovariesthatarepartofawoman’(awomanhasovaries).Thesetwophrases aresimilartophraseslikethebaby’seyesorthegirl’shairthataregoodexamplesofthe partitivegenitive.AlltheseexamplesdifferfromphraseslikeMary’sbagormyfather’scar, wherethegenitivemeaningisclearlypossession. Thephraseawoman’sovariesallowsforanotherinterpretationthatisnotentirely impossible,i.e.itcouldbediscussedasanexampleofthedescriptive(qualitative) genitive,wheretheunderlyingstructureshouldbe‘ovariesliketheovariesofawoman’.In thisinterpretationitissimilartophraseslikeachild’splayoralion’sheart,whichclearly exemplifythedescriptivegenitive.Still,itisthereadingsuggestedabovethatappearstobe moreplausiblewiththephraseinquestion. Astohislife’swork,itcanbeexplainedas‘theworktowhichhedevotedhislife’,‘thework thatoccupiedhislife’or‘theworkhedidthroughouthislife’.Hence,itcouldbeviewedas anexampleofthegenitiveoftemporalmeasureoreventhedescriptivegenitive. Challenging Question7. DiscussthesyntacticandinformationstructureofthesentencebeginningwithWhen Walkerbeganhisscientificcareer,…inparagraph4,thenrelatethosetotextual function(s). a.WhenWalkerbeganhisscientificcareer(SAdjunct:wh-temporalclause),he(Subj:Pron) focused(Pred:Finite)onthefemalereproductivesystem(Obj:prepPhrase)asamodelof “pureageing”(Adj:PrepPh):awoman’sovaries,evenintheabsenceofanydisease,slowlybut inevitablyslideintothethroesofmenopause(S:Np+AdjCicr:PrepPh+AdjCirc:AdvPh+ Pred:Fin+AdjPlace:PrepPh). b.WhenWalkerbeganhisscientificcareer(TextualTheme,PartiallyMarked;TimeCircum), he(TopicalTh)focusedonthefemalereproductivesystemasamodelof“pureageing” (Rheme):awoman’sovaries(TopicalTh),evenintheabsenceofanydisease,slowlybut inevitablyslideintothethroesofmenopause(Rh). c.E.g. ThesentencebeginswithWhenWalkerbeganhisscientificcareer,…asparagraph2is dedicatedthematicallytothebeginningofWalker’scareerandinterestinageing,while paragraph3dealswiththelaterstagesofthatcareerandthatinterest.Toconnectthenew paragraph(i.e.par4)backtopar.2(ortobothpar.2andpar.3),thesentence’spointof departure(duetothegeneralgoalofthediscourse)isinformationwhichisalreadygiven/ presentinearlierpartsofthetext.Therefore,theSentADjappearsfirstinthesentencein orderforthetextproducertoconnectthenewsentenceto‘old’,‘previous’,or‘given’ information.ThefunctionoftheSentAdjunct,thus,istheoneofaTextualTheme.Itisa PartiallyMarkedTheme(AdjunctTheme;CircumstancesofTime)asthesentencedoesnot beginwithaTopicThemeexpressedbytheSubject,whichwouldhavebeenthedefault situation. Theuseofthecolonbetweenthetwoindependentclausessuggeststhesecondclauseis directlyrelatedtothefirstonebutanotherpossible,andmorevalid,interpretationisthat thecolonisusedtolayemphasis,andthusfocus,onthesecondclause,turningitintoasort ofaRhematicstructureinitself.Withinthesecondclause(afterthecolon),thethematic 3 arrangementsuggeststhekeyimportanceofthelastRhematicelements(i.e.slideintothe throesofmenopause),whichappearafteradoubleuseofstructuresdedicatedtocircumstantial information(i.e.slowlyandinevitably,andevenintheabsenceofanydisease).Inthisway, first,themostimportantinformationalbitsarepostponedaslongaspossible,whichcreates aclearsenseof‘focus’and‘suspense’inthetext.Second,thetechniqueallowsthetext producertofulfilltheexperientialfunctionofthetextandunfolditspossibilitiesfully. Question8. Analysethefollowingstructuresfromparagraph3:Walker,now74,andarare diseasethatdoesn’tevenhavearealname,“SyndromeX”.Contrastthemintermsof internalconstituencyandfunctionwithintheunitsthatcontainthem.Commenton thedifferencesbetweenappositionandmodification. Bothstructuresarenounphrases.Walker,now74,functionsastheSubjectoftheclause, whileararediseasethatdoesn’tevenhavearealname,“SyndromeX”isacomplementtoa prepositioninaprepositionalphrase.Thefirstoneisaclauseconstituent,theseconda phraseone,i.e.theyfunctionatdifferentlevelsoftherankscale. TheinternalconstituencyoftheNPWalker,now74,includesapropernounfollowedbya non-restrictivereducedrelativeclausewhichresultsinanumeralphrase.Huddlestonand Pullum(2005:97)considernow74afusedheadconstruction.Thishoweverdoesnotmake thewholestructureappositive. Theinternalconstituencyofararediseasethatdoesn’tevenhavearealname,“SyndromeX” involvesadeterminer(theindefinitearticlea),apremodifier(theadjectiverare),thehead noun(thecommon,countnoundisease),adefining/restrictivethat-relativeclause,where therelativepronounperformsthefunctionofSubjectinthesubordinateclauseandan appositiveNPwiththelastnounintherelativeclause(name)asantecedent. Thebasicdifferencebetweenmodificationandappositionisthattheformerexemplifies hypotacticrelations,whilethelatterparatacticrelations.Inapposition,thesecondNP identifiesthesamereferentinadifferentway.Modificationisarelationshipof subordinationofonegrammaticalelementtoanother.Withinendocentricphrases modifiersencodedifferentpropertiesofthehead.Inappositiontherelationshipofequality canbeclearlyillustratedbythepossibilitytochooseeitheroftheNPsastheonlyoneina clausewithoutdisruptingthemeaningofthewhole,e.g.TheyinvitedmeandmywifeSusan toaparty.=Theyinvitedmeandmywifetoaparty.=TheyinvitedmeandSusantoa party. Question9. Discussthesyntacticbehaviouranddistributionofalltheadjectivesyoucanfindinparagraph1. Group the adjectives according to the their function and use and comment on possible classificationsandcriteriaforthese. The list of adjectives in the first paragraph comprises: a26-year-old free-lovinghippie; markedbyyouth;psychedelicdrugs,sexualrevolutions;theyoungWalker;acutely aware;hauntedby;passingday;slightlylessrobust,slightlymoredecayed; convertible. 4 Threegroupsofadjectivescanbeformedonthebasisoftheirsyntacticfunctionwithinthe unitcontainingthem:1)attributive-26-year-old,free-lovinghippie;markedbyyouth, psychedelicdrugs,sexualrevolutions,youngWalker;2)predicativе–yetwasalso acutelyaware,hisbodywasslightlylessrobust,slightlymoredecayedand3)a substantivisedadjectivefunctioningasanounheadwithinanNP. ThefirstgroupfunctionaspremodifiersinanNP.Theydifferintermsoftheirmorphological andsyntacticmakeup(somearesimpleheads–e.g.psychedelic,sexual,etc.;whileothersare headsofexpandedAdj.phrases–e.g.markedbyyouth),buttheyareallpartsofNPsandhavea modifyingfunction.Thesecondgroupareadjectivesusedontheirownasclauseconstituents. TheyfunctionasCsandareintroducedbylinkverbs.Thesetwousesareknownasattributive andpredicativeuse,respectively,whichcorrespondstotwoprototypicalpatternsofsyntactic behaviourofadjectivesthatrunparalleltotwobasictypesofsyntacticrelations–modification andcomplementation,respectively.Adjectivescanoccurbeforeanounandfunctionas premodifiersinanNPortheycanappearindependentlyaspredicativecomplementsrelatingto thesubject(Cs)incopular/linksentencesorafteradirectobjectincomplextransitiveclauses (functioningasCo). AthirduseofadjectivesinEnglishisrelatedtothephenomenonofsubstantivisationasisthecase withthethirdgroupinparagraph1-convertible. MostadjectivesintheEnglishlanguagecanbeusedbothattributivelyandpredicatively,even thoughtherearerestrictionswithsemanticandsyntacticconsequences.However,someadjectives canonlybeusedintheattributiveposition.Adjectivessuchaslive,mere,elder,little,andsheerare someexamplesforthistypeofadjectives. Thisshopdoesn’tsellliveanimals.(Animalsthatarestillalive) Helivesinalittlehouse.(Ahousethatissmall) Imethiseldersister.(Sisterwhoisolder) Predicativeadjectivesaretheadjectivesthatoccurafteralinkverb(functioningasCs), Someadjectivesonlyoccurinthepredicativeposition.Adjectivesthattendtobeusedexclusively predicatively tend to have a participial origin. Some of them can be recognised by a no-longer synchronicallyrecognisableprefixa-. Thehousewasablaze.;Shewasalone.;Hefeltthatsomethingwasamiss.;Shewasutterlybereft. The central differences between the two basic uses of adjectives run parallel to the differences betweenmodificationandcomplementationinlanguage. Besidesthedifferencesdescribedabove,inrelationtotheirpositionregardingtheheadofaunit containingthem,adjectivescanbegroupedintopremodifyingandpostmodifying(qualifying)ones. In the set paragraph one adjective is postpositioned within the matrix NP – marked. Besides contributingdifferentkindsofproperties(prepositionedadjectivestendtoassignmoreinherent orpermanentcharacteristicsofthereferentoftheheadnoun,whilepostpositionedonesusually add transient or less closely associated with the referent properties), prepositioned and postpositionedadjectivesdifferintermsofthekindsofmodificationtheytoleratewithintheirown phrases. Prepositioned ones do not favour postmodification (e.g. markedbyyouth vs. psychedelic drugs). 5