Download Levels of Structural Organization Levels of Structural

HD in Nursing Studies-Human Biology
Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules
Structural and Functional Organization
of the Human Body
• Cellular – cells are made of molecules
• Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
• Organ – made up of different types of tissues
• Organ system – consists of different organs that work
closely together
• Organismal – made up of the organ systems
Levels of Structural Organization
Organ Systems of the Body
• Integumentary system
• Forms the external body covering
• Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair,
and nails
• Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes
vitamin D
Skin Structure
Organ Systems of the Body
• Skeletal system
• Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments
• Protects and supports body organs
• Provides the framework for muscles
• Site of blood cell formation
• Stores minerals
Bones and Cartilages of the Human Body
Organ Systems of the Body
• Muscular system
• Composed of muscles and tendons
• Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat
Skeletal Muscle
Organ Systems of the Body
• Nervous system
• Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
• Is the fast-acting control system of the body
• Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and
glands
Major Skeletal Muscles
Simplified Design of the Nervous System
Organ Systems of the Body
Gross Anatomy of Heart: Frontal Section
• Cardiovascular system
• Composed of the heart and blood vessels
• The heart pumps blood
• The blood vessels transport blood throughout the
body
Veins of Systemic Circulation
Aorta and Major Arteries
Organ Systems of the Body
Lymphatic System: Overview
• Lymphatic system
• Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
• Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns
it to blood
• Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
• Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
Organ Systems of the Body
• Respiratory system
• Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
• Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide
The Components of the Respiratory System
Organ Systems of the Body
The Components of the Digestive System
• Digestive system
• Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and
liver
• Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
the blood
• Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
Organ Systems of the Body
• Urinary system
• Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
• Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
• Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the
blood
The Urinary System Organs
Organ Systems of the Body
Male Reproductive System
• Male reproductive system
• Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum,
and ductus deferens
• Main function is the production of offspring
• Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
• Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female
reproductive tract
Organ Systems of the Body
• Female reproductive system
• Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, and vagina
• Main function is the production of offspring
• Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
• Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
and development of the fetus
• Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the
newborn
Female Reproductive Anatomy
Organ System Interrelationships
Organ System Interrelationships
• The integumentary system protects the body from the
external environment
• Nutrients and
oxygen are
distributed by the
blood
• Digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with the
external environment, take in nutrients and oxygen
• Metabolic wastes
are eliminated by
the urinary and
respiratory systems
HD in Nursing Studies-Human Biology
Cell Theory
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
life
Cellular Physiology
• Organismal activity depends on individual and
collective activity of cells
• Biochemical activities of cells are dictated by
subcellular structure
• Continuity of life has a cellular basis
Structure of a Generalized Cell
Plasma Membrane
• Separates intracellular fluids from extracellular fluids
• Are selectively permeable
• Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
• Glycocalyx is a glycoprotein area abutting the cell
that provides highly specific biological markers by
which cells recognize one another
Fluid Mosaic Model
Phospholipid Molecules
• Clothespin shape
• The head (phosphate portion) – relatively soluble in water (polar, hydrophilic).
• The tails (the lipids) – relatively insoluble (non-polar, hydrophobic) &
meet in the interior of the membrane.
Fluid Mosaic Model
Fluid Mosaic Model
• Double bilayer of lipids with imbedded, dispersed
proteins
• Bilayer consists of phospholipids, cholesterol, and
glycolipids
• Glycolipids are lipids with bound carbohydrate
• Integral proteins --embedded in the membrane
• Phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic
bipoles
• Peripheral proteins --loosely bound to the inner or outer surface
• Anchored proteins
Functions of Membrane Proteins
Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Transport
• Intercellular
adhesion
• Enzymatic
activity
• Cell-cell
recognition
• Receptors
for signal
transduction
• Attachment to
cytoskeleton and
extracellular
matrix
Phospholipid Membrane
Passive Membrane Transport: Diffusion
• Simple diffusion –
nonpolar and lipidsoluble substances
• Diffuse directly
through the lipid
bilayer
• Diffuse through
channel proteins
• Selective permeability
• regulates the type & rate of molecules traffic into and out of the cell
Passive Membrane Transport: Diffusion
Passive Membrane Transport: Osmosis
• Facilitated
diffusion – large,
polar molecules
such as simple
sugars
• Occurs when the concentration of a solvent is
different on opposite sides of a membrane
• Combine with
protein carriers
• Diffusion of water across a semipermeable
membrane
• Osmolarity – total concentration of solute particles in
a solution
Effect of Membrane Permeability on Diffusion
and Osmosis
Effect of Membrane Permeability on Diffusion
and Osmosis
Passive Membrane Transport: Filtration
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• The passage of water and solutes through a
membrane by hydrostatic pressure
• Pressure gradient pushes solute-containing fluid from
a higher-pressure area to a lower-pressure area
Active Transport
Membrane Transport System
• Symport system – two substances are moved across
a membrane in the same direction
• Antiport system – two substances are moved across
a membrane in opposite directions
• Uses ATP to move solutes across a membrane
• Requires carrier proteins
Membrane Transport System
Membrane Transport System
• Primary active transport – hydrolysis of ATP phosphorylates
the transport protein causing conformational change
[ Na+ ]high
[ K+ ]low
Na+, K+ -pump
Carrier proteins
[ K+ ]high
[ Na+ ]low
• Carrier proteins involved in transporting molecules ‘uphill’ against an electrochemical
gradient from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration.
• Secondary active transport – use of an exchange
pump (such as the Na+-K+ pump) indirectly to drive
the transport of other solutes
Vesicular Transport
Vesicular Transport
• Transport of large particles and macromolecules
across plasma membranes
• Exocytosis – moves substance from the cell interior
to the extracellular space
• Endocytosis – enables large particles and
macromolecules to enter the cell
• Receptor-mediated transport – uses clathrin-coated
pits as the major mechanism for specific uptake of
macromolecules
HD in Nursing Studies-Human Biology
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively constant
conditions within the body's internal environment.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Bring a deviation in a physiological event back into line.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis
A response which
further enhances the
change that set it in
motion.
Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback
• In negative
feedback
systems, the
output shuts
off the
original
stimulus
• In positive feedback
systems, the output
enhances or
exaggerates the
original stimulus
• Example:
Regulation
of blood
glucose
levels
• Example:
Regulation of blood
clotting