Download Key themes and contents coverage Reasons for the Cold War Long

Option C8: A World Divided: Superpower Relations 1945-62
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Key themes and contents coverage
Reasons for the Cold War
Long-term rivalry between Soviet Union and West.
Differences during the Second World War and at Yalta and Potsdam.
Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.
Attitude of Truman.
Students should be aware of the ideological differences between
capitalism and communism.
Early developments in the Cold War, 1945-49
Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe.
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan.
Differences over Germany.
Causes, events and results of the Berlin Crisis (1948-9).
Setting up of NATO.
Students should be aware of developments in China and the Soviet testing
of the atomic bomb.
The Cold War in the 1950s
Korean War.
Khrushchev and peaceful co-existence.
The Warsaw Pact.
Causes, events and results of Hungarian uprising.
The Berlin Crisis of 1961
U2 incident (1960).
Reasons for construction of Berlin Wall.
Students should be aware of more long term factors and the failure of a
negotiated settlement
Its effects on relations between East and West and on Germany.
The Cuban Missiles Crisis
Castro and relations with USA and Soviet Union.
Bay of Pigs.
Kennedy and missile sites.
Key events of crisis (this includes how it was eventually resolved)
Impact on East-West relations (this means the immediate effects more
especially the hot-line).
ReasonsfortheColdWar
WhatwastheColdWar?
TheendoftheSecondWorldWarsawtheemergenceoftwosuperpowers,theUSAandthe
USSR,whowerelockedinastrugglewhichlastedfor45years.ThiswasknownastheColdWar.
ThetermColdWarwasfirstusedin1947todescribetheconflict.Itwasawarof
words,ofpropagandaandofthreatbetweentheUSAandtheUSSR,butitdidnotinvolvethe
twoSuperpowersindirectconfrontation.Theybothtookpartinproxywars–thatisthey
helpedtheiralliestofighttheotherSuperpowerortheiralliesbutdidnotbecomedirectly
involvedintheconflictthemselves.
WhydidtheColdWarbegin?
TheColdWarbeganduetoamixtureoflongandshorttermcauses.
LongTermCauses:
• DifferingIdeologies:
In1917Russiabecamethefirstcommunistcountryintheworld.BoththeUSAandthe
USSRbelievedthattheirsystemwasthebestwayoforganisingacountryandother
countriesshouldfollowtheirexample.
o TheUSSR–onepartystate,nofreeelections,stateownedindustryand
agriculture.Thegovernmentplannedtheeconomyandwhatshouldbe
produced.Thereisalackoffreedomandstrictcensorship.
o TheUSA–democraticandcapitalist,freeelections,industryandagriculture
wereprivatelyownedandrunforprofit.Freepressandfreedomofmovement.
Bothsidesfearedtheotherwasouttodestroyit.TheSovietsbelievedthewestwasout
todestroycommunism.TheWestbelievedSovietswantedtospreadcommunism
aroundtheglobe.
• Stalin’sSuspicionoftheWest
o TheUSSRhadbeenattackedpreviously,GermanyhadinvadedRussiain1914,
in1918,AlliedforceshadinvadedRussiaduringtheCivilWar.Hitlerhadinvaded
in1941.Stalinbelieveditwasessentialtohavefriendlycountriesonhisborder
topreventthishappeningagain.
o StalindidnottrusttheWest.TheWesthadbeenappeasedHitlerinthe1930s-
StalinbelievedtheyhadwantedHitlertodestroycommunism.TheWestwas
alsoslowtoopentheSecondFrontduringtheSecondWorldWartohelpthe
RussiansfightHitler.
•
TheUSA’schangeofpolicy
o TheUSAwasdeterminednottorepeatitsisolationistpoliciesoftheinterwar
years.TheUSAbelievedappeasementdidnotwork,andthatdictatorshadtobe
confrontedanddemocracysupported.
o AstherichestandmostsuccessfulcountryintheworldtheUSAexpectedto
haveasayinthewaytheworldwasrun.Itwasconfidentnootherpowerhad
nuclearweapons.
o TheUSAdidnotwanttoreturntotheDepressionandwantedtosecuremarkets
foritsgoods,itdidnotbelievethatthecommunistcountrieswouldbuy
Americangoodsandsowasdeterminedtopreventthespreadofcommunism.It
wasnotintheUSA'seconomicintereststoallowthespreadofcommunism.
ShortTermCauses
TheYaltaandPotsdamConferences
YaltaConference(February1945)
TheleaderspresentwereStalin(USSR),Roosevelt(USA)andChurchill(Britain).
Agreements
• StalinagreedtojointhewaragainstJapan
onceGermanywasdefeated
• All3agreedtojointheUnitedNations.
• Germanytobedividedintofourzonesof
occupation(Br,Fr,USA,USSR)
• Berlintobedividedintofourzones,as
Germany
• Stalintohave‘asphereofinfluence'in
EasternEurope.
• ‘Freeelections'tobeheldtodecide
governmentscountriesliberatedfromNazi
occupation
HowevertherewasadisputeoverPoland:
• Stalininsistedona‘friendlygovernment’inPoland.TheWestdemandedfreeelections
inPoland.
PotsdamConference(July1945)
TheleaderspresentwereStalin(USSR),Truman(USA),andAttlee(Britain)
Personalityclash:Truman,thenewPresidentoftheUSA,wasfiercelyanti-communist.Hewas
notpreparedtonegotiatewithStalin.This,inturn,angeredStalin.
Agreements:
• USSRtogaineasternPolandandPolandtobebe
compensatedwithsomeGermanterritory-the
GermanborderwassettledattheOder-NeisseLine.
• NaziPartytobebannedandNaziwarcriminalsto
beputontrial.
Disagreements:
• StalindemandedharshreparationsfromGermanyfortheUSSR-demanded$20billion
compensation.ThisfigurewasrejectedbyTrumanandAttlee–theydidnotwantto
makethesamemistakesasatVersailles.
• StalindeniedanavalbaseintheMediterranean
• StalinhadsetupacommunistgovernmentinPolandwithoutfreeelectionsbeingheld–
thisangeredTrumanandAttleeandmadethemsuspiciousofStalin’smotives.
TheAtomBomb
On16thAugust,duringthePotsdamConference,the
USAsuccessfullytestedtheirfirstABomb.Truman
informedStalinaboutit,butwasnotwillingtoshare
thetechnology.ThismadeStalinevenmore
suspiciousoftheWestandencouragedhimtobegin
anarmsracetomaketheUSSR’sweaponsequalin
forcetothoseoftheUSA.
•
TheArmsRacewaspushedalongbyfear.
o Until1949theUSSRcouldnotriskawaragainstUSA.WhentheUSSRexploded
ownnuclearweaponin1949,USAnolongerhadamonopolyandneededto
rethinkitsstrategy.TheUSAbegantodeveloptheHbomb.
o In1952theUSSRexplodeditsownH-bomb.
o TheUSAbegantobuildbomberaircraft,todelivertheH-bomb,inthemistaken
beliefthattheUSSRhadmorebomberaircraftthantheUSAdid.
WarofWords
1946–Churchill’sIronCurtainSpeech,deliveredatFultonMissouri
CountriesandcitiesundertheSovietsphereofinfluencearesubjectnotjusttoSoviet
influencebuttoaveryhighdegreeofcontrolfromMoscow.
1946–Statin’selectionspeechcomparingChurchillandhisfriendstoHitlerandhiscronies.
SecretTelegrams
1946LongTelegramfromGeorgeF.Kennan,AmericanambassadorinMoscow:
• Stalinhadgivenaspeechcallingfordestructionofcapitalism
• TherecouldbenopeacewiththeUSSRwhileitwasopposedtocapitalism
• TheUSSRwasbuildingupitsmilitarypower.
1946Novikov’sTelegramfromtheSovietambassadorinWashington:
• AmericadesiredtodominatetheWorld
• TheAmericangovernmentnotinterestedinco-operationsinceRoosevelt’sdeath
• AmericanpeoplearebeingpreparedforwarwiththeUSSR
Summary:
Why did the Cold War begin?
Long Term Causes:
- Differing ideologies
- Stalin’s suspicions of the West
- The USA’s change in policy
Short Term Causes:
- Tensions between the leaders at Yalta and Potsdam
- The A Bomb began an arms race
- Personality clash between Truman and Stalin
SovietExpansionintheEast
TheUSSRrespondedtoitsnuclearinferiorityby
strengtheningitscontroloverEasternEurope.
Riggedelections,violence,intimidationandother
methodswereusedtogaincontroloverEastern
EuropeanstatesincludingBulgaria,Hungary,Polandand
Romania.
By1947alleasternEuropeanstatesapartfrom
Czechoslovakiahadcommunistgovernments
(Czechoslovakiacameundercommunistgovernmentin
1948)
NofreeelectionshadbeenheldasagreedtoatYalta.
TheUSSRjustifieditsactions;
- IthadcreatedabufferzoneagainsttheWest.
- ItwasafraidoftheUSA’sA-bombmonopoly.
- ItwasafraidofanattackbytheWestinthenearfuture.
- Ithadcreateda‘sphereofinfluence’asagreedatYalta.
TheUSAclaimed;
- TheUSSRhadseizedcontrolofEasternEuropeandrejectedfreeelectionsasagreedat
Yalta.
- TheUSAfearedthattheUSSRwasdeterminedtoextenditsinfluenceintoWestern
Europe(andthentherestoftheworld)
TheUSSRclaimedthattheirmeasuresweredefensive,buttheUSAclaimedtheywere
aggressiveandathreattothewest.
TheTrumanDoctrine
Between1945and1949theUSAsoughttocontainthespreadofcommunism,firstinEurope
butlateraroundtheglobe.TheUSAbelievedthattheUSSRwasdeterminedtoexpandandthat
theUSAshoulduseanymeanspossibletostopthatexpansion.
Greecewasthefirstcountrytobenefitfromthispolicy.DuringWW2theGreekresistanceto
theGermanoccupationhadbeendividedintosupportersofthemonarchyandthe
communists.AttheendofthewarBritishtroopshadhelpedtorestorethemonarchybutwere
nowunderattackfromthecommunists.By1947,Britaincouldnolongeraffordtocontinueto
keeptroopsinGreeceandsotheyaskedforhelpfromtheUSA.TheUSAprovidedmoneyto
keeptheBritishtroopsinGreece
In1947PresidentTrumanoutlinedtheUSA’sresponseinwhat
becameknownastheTrumanDoctrine.
“IbelievethatitmustbethepolicyoftheUnitedStatesto
supportfreepeopleswhoareresistingattemptedsubjugation
byarmedminoritiesorbyoutsidepressures.”
PresidentTruman12March1947
Thispolicywasdesignedtostopthespreadofcommunism-it
wascalledcontainment
Policywasdrivenbyabeliefinthe‘DominoTheory'–theUSA
shouldpreventonecountryfromfallingtocommunismtostop
othersfromfollowingsuit.
ItwasbelievedthatitwasAmerica'sdutytoprotectdemocraciesfromthethreatof
communism.Itwoulddothisbyprovidingmoney,aid,advisorsorevenweaponstoany
countrythreatenedbycommunism.
USAshowedthispolicyinactionwhenitinstalledballisticmissilesinTurkey-theUSSRhadno
suchmissilesandthereforesawthisactionashostile.
TheMarshallPlan
TheMarshallPlanisanotherexampleoftheTrumanDoctrineinaction
Europe’seconomyhadbeenshatteredbyWW2.Europehadtotacklethedevastationcaused
bythewar,theimpactofthebombing,thelossoflives,thedestructionofindustry,refugees
andamountainofdebt.EuropeowedtheUSA$11.5billion.
USSecretaryofStateGeorgeMarshallbelievedthatcountriessufferingfrompovertyand
unemploymentweremorelikelytoturntocommunism.TheaimoftheMarshallPlanwas
thereforetorebuildtheshatteredEuropeaneconomysothatitcouldresistthespreadof
communism.Afundof$15billionwasmadeavailabletoanynationwhoappliedforit.
TheMarshallPlanaimedto:
- RaiselivingstandardsinwesternEuropetoreducetheappealofcommunism.
- TorebuildGermany
- ToweakenSovietcontroloverEasternEurope
- TohelptheUSeconomybyincreasingUSexportstoEurope.Theydidnotwantarepeat
ofthe1920s.
TheUSgovernmentwasinitiallyinsureaboutprovidingsomuchaidtoEurope,however,events
inCzechoslovakiasoonchangedtheirminds
Czechoslovakia,1948
By1948Czechoslovakiawasnotunderthecontrolofthecommunists.Thegovernment
consideredacceptingMarshallAid.ElectionswereduetotakeplaceinSpring1948andthe
communistswereexpectedtodobadly.Acommunistcoupsawthenon-communistsremoved
fromoffice,JanMasaryk,aministerwhosupportedthewestwasmurdered.Thecommunists
tookcontrolofCzechoslovakia.
Thisangeredpeopleinthewest.USCongressmenwhohadbeenreluctanttograntMarshall
Aid,agreedtothemoneyfortheMarshallPlan.
Stalin’sReactiontotheMarshallPlan
StalincalledtheMarshallPlan‘dollarimperialism'andclaimedtheUSAwastryingtocontrol
industryandtradeinEurope.Hebelievedthatitsoughttounderminecommunismandto
promotethespreadofcapitalismacrosstheglobe.Herefusedtoacceptanyeconomicaidand
stoppedanyEasternbloccountryapplyingforit.
HowdidStalinreacttotheactionsoftheWest?
Cominform(1947)andComecon(1949)
TotrytopreventanyeasternEuropeancountriesapplyingforaidandtostrengthenhisgripon
thecountriesonhisbordersStalinofferedhelpandsupporttoeasternEuropebysettingup
twoorganisations,Cominform(1947)andComecon(1949).
Cominform(CommunistInformationBureau)wasanallianceofEuropeancommunistpartiesto
helpthemplanandtoworktogetherandspreadStalin’sideas.ItincreasedthecontrolStalin
hadoverthesecountries,andlimitedtheirindependence.OnlyMarshalTito,thecommunist
leaderofYugoslavia,wouldnotacceptStalin’stotalleadershipandsplitwithMoscow.
Comecon(CouncilforMutualEconomicAid)wassetuptocoordinatetheproductionandtrade
oftheeasternEuropeancommunistcountries.Theywereexpectedtotradewitheachother
andnottheWest.However,itfavouredtheUSSRmorethananyofitsothermembers.
TheBerlinCrisis:1948-49
Germany,andBerlin,hadbeendividedin1945intozonesofoccupation.Thiswasasourceof
tensionwhichpeakedduringtheBerlinCrisisof1948-49.
MapshowingthedivisionofGermanyandBerlinin1945
CausesoftheBerlinCrisis/BerlinBlockade:
- Britain,FranceandtheUSAhadmergedtheirzonesofWestGermanyintooneinMarch
1948
- Britain,FranceandtheUSAhadthenintroducedanewcurrencytowesternGermany,
whichwasintendedtohelpitbecomeeconomicallystronger.
- Capitalismwasdrawingmanypeopleawayfromthecommunisteasttowardsgreater
opportunitiesandfreedoms.
Asaresult:
- StalinfeltthreatenedbyGermany’sgrowingstrength
-
Stalinwasangrythatthewesthadnotconsultedhimbeforemakingchangesintheir
zonesofGermany
Stalinwantedthe‘cancer’ofwestBerlintoberemovedfromEastGermany.
Whathappened?
InJune1948Stalincutoffallroad,railandcanallinkstoWestBerlin–theBerlinBlockade.The
cityonlyhad6weekssuppliesoffoodandfuel.Stalinaimedtostarvethe2millioninhabitants
inWestBerlinintosubmission.HebelievedthatTrumanwouldeitherhavetogiveupWest
Berlinorgotowar.
ButtheWestrespondedwithamassiveairlift-food,fuelandsupplieswereflownintoBerlin
for10months.Stalindarednoshootdownanyplanes–itwouldbeanactofwar.
StalincalledofftheBlockadeinMay1949.
Outcomes:
- ApropagandavictoryfortheWest-Trumanhadshownhewouldnotallowthepolicy
ofcontainmenttofail.
- Stalinwashumiliated-theUSSRhadfailedtoextenditsinfluence
- ThedivisionofGermanyintotwoseparatestates-inMay1949thenewFederal
RepublicofGermanywassetup.InOctobertheeasternzonebecametheGerman
democraticRepublic.
- TheformationofNATO.
- DeepenedhostilitybetweenEastandWest.
- WhatwasNATO?
• TheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)wasformedinApril1949bythe
Westernpowers.ThiswasduringtheperiodoftheBerlinBlockade,andwaspartlyin
responsetoStalin’saggression.
• TheoriginaltwelvemembersofNATOin1949weretheUnitedStates,theUnited
Kingdom,Canada,France,Denmark,Iceland,Italy,Norway,Portugal,Belgium,
Netherlands,andLuxembourg.
• NATOwasamilitaryalliancethatcommittedallmemberstothedefenceofallthe
others.
• ButNATOwasmorethanapromiseofAmericanhelpinanemergency.Thealliancewas
tobesupportedbylargenumbersoftroopsontheground.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Inparticular,therewerealargenumberoftroopsinWestGermany.By1953,5divisions
ofUStroopswerepermanentlybasedthere.
Stalin,unsurprisingly,sawNATOasathreattotheUSSRandEasternEurope.
WhatwastheWarsawPact?
TheWarsawPactwassetupin1955.
TheWarsawPactwasadefensivemilitaryallianceoftheUSSRanditssatellitestatesin
EasternEurope.
Itwasintendedasacounter-forcetoNATO,whichwasamilitaryallianceofwestern
powers.
TheWarsawPact,likeNATO,reliedoncollectivesecurity–ifonenationwasattacked,
theotherswouldcometoitssupport.
TheWarsawPacthelpedtomakeEasternEuropeaneffective‘bufferzone’fortheUSSR
againsttheWest.
ChinabecomesCommunist:1949
YouarenotexpectedtoknowthedetailsoftheCommunist
revolutioninChina,butyoushouldbeawarethatthefactof
suchalargecountrybecomingCommunistgavetheUSAfurther
‘evidence’thatCommunismwasadangerandthatitwas
spreading.
TheUSAfeareda‘dominoeffect’wherebyonecountryafter
anotherwouldfalltocommunism.ThisisonereasonwhytheUSAwassokeentogetinvolved
intheconflictinKorea.
TheKoreanWar:1950-53
NotethatyouwouldnotbeexpectedtoknowtheeventsoftheKoreanWarindetail,butthat
youshouldknowitskeyfeatures,andunderstandthattheUSSRandUSAweresupporting
opposingsidesinthewarandwhy,andtheconsequences.
TrumanviewedtheKoreanWarasatestofhispolicyofcontainment.
KeyEvents:
• InJune1950CommunistNorthKoreainvadedtheSouthandtheKoreanWarbegan.
• Trumanimmediatelysentadvisers,suppliesandwarshipstohelpSouthKorea.
•
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•
•
•
•
•
•
TrumanthenputpressureontheUnitedNationstocondemnNorthKorea’sactions.
Initially,sixteenstatesprovidedtroopsorsupporttotheUNforceinKorea,butitwas
dominatedbytheUSA.
UNarmyhadearlysuccessandpushedtheNorthKoreansbackbeyondthe38thParallel.
Buttheydidnotstop.DespitewarningsfromMaothatChinawouldsupportNorth
Korea,theUNarmypressedonintotheNorth.ByOctober1950theyhadreachedthe
borderwithChina.
InNovember,200,000ChinesetroopsjoinedtheNorthKoreans,bringingwiththem
moderntanksandplanessuppliedbytheUSSR.
ByJanuary1951UNforceshadbeenpushedbacktothe38thparallel.
Fightingcontinuedforanothertwoyears,butnoprogresswasmadeoneitherside.
AfterthereplacementofTrumanwithEisenhowerin1952andthedeathofStalinin
March1953,stepsweretakentobringtheconflicttoanend.
ThearmisticewassignedinJuly1953.
•
KhrushchevandPeacefulCo-existence
Stalindiedin1953.Afterashortstruggleforpower,in1955Khrushchev
becamethenewruleroftheUSSR.
Atfirst,thewesternpowershopedthatKhrushchevwouldbethestart
ofa‘thaw’intheColdWar.
- Khrushchevmetwesternleadersat‘summit’meetingsandeven
travelledtotheUSA.
- StalinhadmadeallCommunistcountriesdowhathewanted–andhehadfallenout
withPresidentTitoofYugoslavia.Butin1955KhrushchevwenttoYugoslavia,telling
Titothat‘therearedifferentroadstocommunism’.Westernleadersthoughthewould
nolongerinsistthatallcommunistcountriestakeordersfromMoscow.
- Inthe‘SecretSpeech’attheTwentiethPartyCongressin1956,Khrushchevattacked
Stalin,sayingthatStalinwasamurdererandatyrant.Khrushchevbeganto‘deStalinise’Russia-politicalprisonersweresetfreeandtheactivitiesofthesecret
policewerereduced.
- Khrushchevsaidthathewantedpeacefulco-existencewiththeWest.Western
leadershopedthismeanttheendoftheColdWar.
GivenhopethatStalin’seraofrepressionandfearhadcometoanend,opponentsof
communisminEasternEuropebegantomakedemands.
Poland,October1956:
DemonstratorsattackedPolishpolice,protestingaboutrisingfoodpricesand53workers
werekilledbythePolisharmyduringriotsinPoznan.Khrushchevwasalarmedandsent
troopstothePolishborder.
Gomulka,apopularleaderoftheCommunistresistanceduringtheNazioccupationofPoland,
wasappointedleader.Gomulkawasnothard-line,butKhrushchevacceptedthisappointment
asitwouldkeepthepeace.
TherewasalsoagreementthatCommunistswouldstoppersecutingembersoftheCatholic
Church.TheRedArmyleftthePolishborder.
TheHungarianUprising,October1956:
EncouragedbyeventsinPoland,theHungarianpeopledecidedtoprotestagainst
communistrule–withdevastatingresults.
Causes:
1. Poverty
Hungarianswerepoor,yetmuchofthefoodandindustrialgoodstheyproducedwas
senttoRussia.
2. RussianControl
TheHungarianswereverypatriotic,andtheyhatedRussiancontrol–whichincluded
censorship,thevicioussecretpoliceandRussiancontrolofwhattheschoolstaught.
3. CatholicChurch
TheHungarianswereareligiouspeople,buttheCommunistPartyhadbannedreligion,
andputtheleaderoftheCatholicChurchinprison.
4. HelpfromtheWest
HungariansthoughtthattheUnitedNationsorthenewUSpresident,Eisenhower,
wouldhelpthem.
5. De-Stalinisation
WhentheCommunistPartytriedtode-StaliniseHungary,thingsgotoutofcontrol.The
HungarianleaderRakosiaskedforpermissiontoarrest400trouble-makers,but
Khrushchevwouldnotlethim.
Events:
- 23October:Riotsofstudents,workersandsoldiers.Theysmashedupthestatueof
Stalin,andattackedtheSecretPoliceandRussiansoldiers.
- 24October:ImreNagytookoverasPrimeMinister.Heasked
KhrushchevtotakeRussiantroopsoutofHungary.
- 28October:Khrushchevagreed,andtheRussianarmypulledoutof
Budapest.
- 29October–3November:ThenewHungariangovernmentintroduced
democracy,freedomofspeech,andfreedomofreligion(theleaderof
theCatholicChurchwasfreedfromprison).Nagyalsoannouncedthat
HungarywasgoingtoleavetheWarsawPact.
- 4November:Atdawn,1000RussiantanksrolledintoBudapest.By8.10amtheyhad
destroyedtheHungarianarmyandcapturedHungarianRadio–itslastwordsbroadcast
were‘Help!Help!Help!’Hungarianpeople–evenchildren–foughtthemwithmachine
guns.Some4000HungarianskilledfightingtheRussians.
- KhrushchevputinJanosKadar,asupporterofRussia,asPrimeMinister.
- Nagywasexecuted.
Outcomes/ConsequencesoftheHungarianUprising:
1) 200,000HungarianrefugeesfledintoAustria.
2) RussiastayedincontrolbehindtheIronCurtain.
3) PeopleintheWestwerehorrified–manyBritishCommunistslefttheCommunist
Party.
4) ItwascleartoEasternEuropethattheWestwouldnotcometotheiraidtohelpthem
overturncommunism.
5) However,whilsttheywouldnotinterveneincountriesthatwerewithintheSoviet
sphereofinfluence,Westernleadersbecameevenmoredeterminedto‘contain’
communism.
TheU-2spyplaneincident–May1960
Keyevents:
• TheUSSRshotdownanAmericanU-2spyplaneovertheUSSRandcapturedthepilot,
GaryPowers.HewasparadedonSoviettelevision.AccordingtotheUSSR,hehad
confessedtobeingonaspyingmission.
• TheUSAdeniedthatspyingflightstookplaceovertheUSSR–theysaidPowershad
goneoffcoursewhilststudyingweatherconditions.
• WhentheSovietsdevelopedthefilmfromPowers’plane,itwasclearthathehadbeen
spying–thiswasahugeembarrassmenttotheUSgovernment,whohadobviouslylied.
• KhrushchevdemandedthattheUSAstoptheirspyingmissions,thattheypunishthose
responsibleandapologisefortheiractions.
• TheUSagreedtostoptheflightsbutwouldnotapologise.Powerswasimprisonedin
theUSSR.
• TheSovietshadscoredagreatpropagandavictory.
TheBerlinCrisis–1961
Causes:WhywastheBerlinWallbuilt?
Berlinhadbeenasourceoftensionbetweenthesuperpowerssince1945.In1961itagain
reachedcrisispoint.
• ThehighstandardoflivinginWestBerlincontrastedsharplywiththeconditionin
communistEastBerlin–itcontinuallyremindedpeopleintheeasternareasthat
communismwasnotasuccessfulsystemtoliveunder.
• Itwasestimatedthat3millionpeoplehadcrossedfromEasttoWestBerlinbetween
1945and1960.Manyofthesewereyoung,skilled,professionalpeople–theEastwas
suffereda‘braindrain’astheseeducatedmenandwomenlefttomakenewlivesinthe
West.ItseemedlikelythatthiswouldcontinueiftheirexitroutethroughWestBerlin
wasnotblocked.
• KhrushchevalsosuspectedtheUSAofsendingspiesintoEastBerlinandfromthereinto
theEasternblocthroughWestBerlin.Thisseemedverylikely,giventheU-2spyplane
incidentof1960.
Events:Whathappened?
• 13August1961–TheEastGermansbegan
buildingawallaroundWestBerlin.Thiswas
initiallyabarbedwirefence,whichwas
graduallyreplacedwithconcrete.
• AllmovementbetweenEastandWestwas
stopped.
• ForseveraldaysSovietandUStanksfaced
eachotheracrossthedividedBerlinstreets.
Outcomes:Whatweretheconsequences?
• Theflowofrefugeeswasreducedtoatrickle.Between1961and1989(whenthewall
camedown),only5000peoplemanagedtoescapeacrossit.
• Westernnationsweregivenapropagandavictory,asitseemedthatcommuniststates
neededtobuildawalltostoptheircitizensleaving.
• ThewallbecameasymbolofthedivisionofEastandWest.
TheCubanMissileCrisis–1962
Causes:
Superpowertension
BoththeU-2spyplaneincident(whichhadhumiliatedtheUSA)andthenon-resistanceof
theWesttothebuildingoftheBerlinWallmadetheUSSRbelievethattheywereina
strongposition.
FidelCastro’sCuba
• FidelCastro,asocialist,hadoverthrowntheAmerican-backedleaderBatistain1959.
TheUSAweresuspiciousofCastroandwantedtoremovehimfrompower.
• Cubawasonly90milesoffcoastofAmerica–theydidn’twantasocialist(orworse,
acommunist)country‘intheirbackyard’.
• USAtriedtoruinCubabyrefusingtobuytheirmainexport–sugar.Facingfinancial
collapse,CastrodidadealwiththeUSSR–theywouldbuyCuba’ssugarcrop.
• CubanationalisedAmericancompaniesandsoldoffUS-ownedproperty
BayofPigs
(April1961)–Americasentin1400exiledCubanrebelstooverthrowCastrobuttheywere
easilydefeated.ThiswasahumiliationfortheUSA,andjustencouragedCastrototurnto
theUSSRforprotection.USSRstartedshippingweaponsandequipmenttoCuba.
Missilebases
14October1962–AmericanU-2spyplanesphotographedSovietmissilesitesonCuba.
Events–The‘ThirteenDays’:
• Kennedyorderedanavalblockadeandthreatened
retaliationifanymissilewasfired.
• For10daystheworldwasonthebrinkofnuclearwar.
• KennedypromisedtoremoveUSmissilesfromTurkeyin
returnforthebasesonCubabeingdismantledandthe
missiles(whichwerestillontheirwaytoCuba)taken
backtotheUSSR.
• 28OctoberKhrushchevremovedthemissilesandthe
crisiswasover
Outcomes:
• Khrushchevseemedtohavefailed–hehadbackeddowninthefaceofAmerican
pressure.ThepublicdidnotknowthatKennedyhadsecretlyagreedtoremoveUS
missilesfromTurkey.
• KennedybecametheherooftheWesternworld.
• Telephone‘hotline’setupbetweenMoscowandWashingtonsothattheleaders
couldspeakdirectly.Thiswastotryandheadoffanyfuturecrisesbeforetheybecame
serious.
• Thetwopowersrealisedhowclosetheyhadcometonuclearwar.Armstalksbegan
andtheNuclearTestBanTreatywassignedin1963.