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STUDY GUIDE GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY-200) The following terms are to serve as a guide to your understanding of the class lectures. Keep in mind as you read that not all of these terms will necessarily be covered in class, but it is important that you understand what each term on the list means. Most terms will come directly from your text; others that are indicated by an asterisk (*) will come from lecture notes. Other terms may also be added as we progress through the semester. You will find that your studying will be more effective if you spend a little time each day to refresh your learning rather than trying to cram the night before the test. It is also helpful to have read the chapters before the class lecture. This list of terms should not be used as a substitute for reading the text chapters! TEST I CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Psychology defined Behavior and Mental Processes Philosophy and Biology * - The historical roots of psychology. Fields of Study in Psychology Psychologists by: Sex Country Race Trephining Renee Descartes Franz Josef Gall and Phrenology John Locke and tabula rasa Johann Weyer * - Often called the Father of Modern Psychiatry. Wilhelm Wundt Introspection * - To look within; to examine one’s thoughts, feelings, or sensations. Structuralism * - The school of thought concerned with analyzing perceptions, sensations, and personal experience into basic elements. William James Functionalism * - The school of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt to their environments. (today we have educational and industrial psychology) Gestalt Psychology Hermann Ebbinghaus Max Wertheimer Women in Psychology Margaret Floy Washburn Stetter Hollingsworth Mary Calkins Karen Horney June Etta Downey Anna Freud Mamie Phipps Clark Neuroscience Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective Sigmund Freud Behavioral Perspective (stimulus-response) John B. Watson B.F. Skinner Cognitive Perspective Humanistic Perspective Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow Key Issues Nature-Nurture Issue Conscious-Unconscious causes of behavior Observable behavior-Internal mental processes Free will-Determinism Individual differences-universal principles Scientific method Hypothesis Operational definition Descriptive research Archival research Naturalistic observation Survey research Case study Correlational research Experimental vs. control group Independent vs. dependent variable Random assignment to condition Significant outcome Replication Informed consent Experimental bias Placebo Diffusion of responsibility (Bystander effect) CHAPTER 2 NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR Neurons Dendrite Soma Axon Terminal buttons (axon terminals) Myelin Sheath Glial cells Synapse Resting state Action potential Resting potential * - The electrical charge of a neuron at rest. Threshold * - The point at which a nerve impulse is triggered. All-or-none law Negative after potential * - A drop in electrical charge below the resting potential. Neurotransmitters “Agonists” (excitatory) * - Excite by mimicking the effects of a drug or blocking its reuptake. Some opiate drugs produce a temporary “high” by amplifying sensations of arousal or pleasure. “Antagonists” (inhibitory) * - Inhibit a neurotransmitter’s release decreasing likelihood that a neuron will fire. Acetylcholine (Ach) * - The neurotransmitter released by neurons to activate muscles. Curare * - A drug that competes with acetylcholine, causing paralysis.(antagonist) Glutamate Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Epinephrine Dopamine (DA) Serotonin Endorphins Neuron vs. Nerve * - Neurons are tiny individual cells; nerves are large bundles of axons and dendrites. Neurilemma * - A layer of cells that forms a “tunnel” that damaged nerve fibers can follow as they repair themselves. Central nervous system Spinal chord Sensory (afferent) neurons Motor (efferent) neurons Interneurons Reflex Arc * - The simplest behavior, in which a stimulus provokes an automatic response. Peripheral nervous system Somatic division Autonomic division Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Endocrine system Hormones Oxytocin Pituitary gland Brain scanning techniques Corpus callosum Central core (“Old brain”) Hind brain Medulla Pons Cerebellum Reticular formation Reticular Activating System (RAS) Forebrain Thalamus Hypothalamus Limbic system Cerebral cortex (“New brain”) Corticalization * - Why humans are the most intelligent; an increase in the size and wrinkling of the cortex. Lobes Occipital Temporal Parietal Frontal Motor area Sensory area Somatasensory area Auditory area Visual area Association area Phineas Gage Apraxia Aphasia Broca’s Wernicke’s Agnosia *- (Mindblindness) Inability to identify seen objects. Facial Agnosia * - Inability to perceive familiar faces. Neuroplasticity Hemisphere specialization (left/right) Corpus callosum Split brain Lateralization (men vs. women) CHAPTER 4 STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Consciousness (definition) Behaviorism * - Systematically avoided studying consciousness during the early part of the last century. “Larks and Owls” Eugene Aserinsky (1952) * - Using his son Arnold, was the first to study REM sleep. Electroencephalograph Yawning * - Stretches your neck muscles and increases your heart rate, which increases your alertness. Adenosine * - During the time we are awake, our active brain produces this chemical, which inhibits certain neurons, making us sleepy. (Caffeine blocks adenosine’s activity.) During sleep, adenosine concentration declines. Sleep Microsleep Sleep Deprivation Psychosis Stages of sleep Awake (Beta waves) Relaxed (Alpha waves) Stage 1 (Small irregular waves) Stage 2 (Sleep spindles) Stage 3 (Some Delta waves) Stage 4 (Mostly Delta waves) Somnambulation * - sleepwalking Hypnic jerks (myoclonus) * - A reflex muscle twitch throughout the body that often occurs as one is asleep. Hypnogogic sensations * - Sensations of falling or floating. Paradoxical Sleep (REM)* - Body in internally aroused and internally calm. REM Vs. NREM Genital arousal during REM REM Rebound Dreaming Unconscious wish fulfillment theory Latent content Manifest content Dream symbols Dreams-for survival-theory Activation-Synthesis theory Sleep Disturbances Insomnia Tryptophan * - A sleep-promoting (increases serotonin) amino acid found in starchy foods, especially baked potatoes. Also found in cookies, bread, pasta, oatmeal, pretzels, bagels, and dry cereal. Night terrors Somnambulism Narcolepsy * - 1 in 2000 sufferers. Associated with a relative absence of a hypothalamic neural center that produces a neurotransmitter called hypocretin. Can also result in catalplexy, a sudden temporary paralysis. Sleep Apnea * - Breathing stops for twenty seconds to two minutes (Afflicts approximately 1 in 20 people, mostly overweight men.) Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS or “crib death”) * - The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant (1 out of every 500 babies), believed to be caused by apnea. Babies are three times more likely to die from SIDS if they live in the same house with smokers! Circadian Rhythms Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) Daydreams Hypnosis Meditation Mantra Psychoactive drugs Tolerance Addictive drugs Biologically based Psychologically based Stimulant drugs Smoking * - Increases epinephrine in the blood and increases dopamine in the synapses. Depressant drugs Alcohol Binge-drinking Rohypnol (“Date rape drug”) Narcotics Hallucinogens: Psychedelic drugs Marijuana MDMA (“Ecstasy”) LSD TEST II CHAPTER 5 LEARNING Learning (definition) Habituation Conditioning Associative learning * - Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Reinforcement * - Any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. Respondent Reinforcement * - Reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a conditioned stimulus. Antecedents * - Events that precede a response. Consequences * - Effects that follow a response. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned response Acquisition * - The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced. Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Vicarious classical conditioning * - Conditioning brought about by watching another person react to a particular stimulus. Expectancy * - An anticipation concerning future events or relationships. John B. Watson Little Albert Conditioned emotional response (CER) * - A learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus. Operant (instrumental) conditioning E.L. Thorndike “Law of Effect” Reward vs. Reinforcer B.F. Skinner Response contingent Shaping Successive approximations * - A series of steps or ever-closer matches to a desired response pattern. Extinction Spontaneous recovery Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Cost Response * - Having to give up privileges as punishment. Reinforcers Primary Secondary Tokens Premack Principle (prepotent responses) * - Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency response; (“Grandma’s law”). Effects of immediate and delayed reinforcement Superstitious behavior * - A behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary. Schedules of reinforcement Continuous vs. partial reinforcement (Intermittent) Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval Variable interval Stimulus control training Punishment Response cost * - Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made. Side effects of punishment How to punish (if you must) * -Don’t use punishment if you can discourage misbehavior in other ways. -Apply punishment during, or immediately after, misbehavior. -Use the minimum punishment necessary to suppress misbehavior. -Be consistent. -Expect anger from a punished person. -Punish with kindness and respect. Two factor learning * - Learning that involves both classical and operant conditioning. Feedback (KR * - Knowledge of results) Information returned to a person about the effects a response has had. Biological constraints (“Instinctive drift”) * - The tendency for learned responses to shift toward innate response patterns. Comparing classical and operant conditioning Cognitive learning theory Latent learning Cognitive map Observational learning (modeling) “Memes”* - Transmitted cultural elements such as ideas, fashions, habits, and slang that come about through imitation. Albert Bandura (Social cognitive approach) MEMORY CHAPTER 6 Memory (definition) Three basic memory processes Encoding Storage Retrieval Three-system memory theory (Sensory, Short-term, Long-term) Sensory memory Iconic memory Echoic memory Selective attention Short-term memory Magic number, 7, + or - 2 18 second rule * - Short term memories are gone without rehearsal. Chunks Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal Mnemonics Working memory Central executive Visual store Verbal store Episodic buffer Long-term memory Serial position effect Primacy effect Recency effect Declarative memory Procedural memory Semantic memory Episodic memory Semantic networks Redintegration * - The process of reconstructing an entire complex memory after observing or remembering only a part of it. Engram Hippocampus Amygdala Long-term potentiation * - Increased neural readiness for impulse transmission. Consolidation Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Recall Recognition Levels-of-processing theory Explicit memory Implicit memory Priming Flashbulb memories Source amnesia Rehearsal Constructive processes Schemas Eidetic imagery * - Often called photographic memory. More common in childhood, with about 8 children out of 100 having eidetic images. Usually do not have better than average long-term memory. Misinformation effect * - Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event. Repressed memories False memories Autobiographical memory Hermann Ebbinghaus’ “Curve of forgetting” Encoding failure Decay Spaced vs. massed practice (spacing effect) * - Memory is more efficient with alternating study periods with brief rests. Those who learn quickly also tend to forget quickly! Cue-dependent forgetting State-dependent learning * - Memory influenced by one’s bodily state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval. Improved memory occurs when the bodily states match. Mood -congruent memory * - The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. Alzheimer’s disease Amnesia Retrograde Anterograde Korsakoff’s syndrome CHAPTER 8 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Motivation (definition) Instincts Primary motives * - Innate motives based on biological needs. Secondary motives * - Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals. Stimulus motives * - Innate needs for stimulation and information. Need * - An internal deficiency that may energize behavior. Drive Motivational model * Need Drive Response Goal (need reduction) Homeostasis Arousal approaches Inverted U function * - A curve, roughly the shape of an upside-down U, that relates performance to levels of arousal. If we set aside individual differences, performance is usually best when arousal is moderate. Yerkes-Dodson law * - If a task is relatively simple, the optimal level of arousal will be high. When a task is more complex, the best performance occurs at lower levels of arousal. Incentives * - Positive and negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior Internal push vs. external pull (needs vs. incentives) Cognitive approaches to motivation Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy Obesity Body mass index Hunger Glucose * - The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. Appetite hormones * Insulin * - Hormone secreted by the Pancreas; controls blood glucose. Increases in Insulin will lower blood sugar and increase hunger. Orexin * - Hunger triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus Ghrelin * - Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain PYY * - Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” message to brain Glucose * - The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. Hypoglycemia * - Below-normal blood sugar level. Lateral hypothalamus Ventromedial hypothalamus Weight set point Metabolism Hyperphagia * - Over-eating. Satiety * - Feeling full or satisfied. Leptin Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa “Externals” * - Individuals whose eating is triggered more by the sight of food rather than an internal condition of hunger. (“See Food”) Carbohydrates * - Tend to be comfort foods because of elevated Serotonin levels. Taste aversions * - An active dislike for a particular food usually based on classical conditioning. Weight discrimination * - Stronger against women than men. Studies indicate that there is greater discrimination by weight that gender or race. Thirst Intracellular * - Caused by excess of salt consumption. Extracellular * - Caused by sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, or bleeding. Alfred Kinsey * - Controversial Indiana University biologist who studied people’s sexual practices extensively in the 1940's and 50's. Masters and Johnson * - Husband and wife team who published research on the sexual response cycle after observing and filming people involved in various sexual activities. Sexual response cycle Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution Refractory period * - A short time period after orgasm in which a male is unable to reach orgasm again. Androgens Estrogens and progesterone Fantasy * - Important to human sexual behavior. Men tend to fantasize more about sex than women. Women are more likely to fantasize about the romantic aspects than the physical act itself. Masturbation Heterosexuality Double standard Premarital sex Marital Sex Extramarital sex Homosexuality Bisexuality Transsexualism Need for achievement (McClelland) Need for affiliation Need for power Emotions * - A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behavior, and (3) conscious experience. * When people experience positive emotions, the left hemisphere of the brain becomes more electrically active. When people experience negative emotions the right hemisphere becomes more electrically active. Facial feedback effect * - The tendency for our brains to read our facial expressions and produce emotions accordingly. Adaptation level phenomenon * - Our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a “neutral” level defined by our prior experience. Relative deprivation * - The perception that we are worse off than others with whom we compare ourselves. “I cried because I had no shoes,” states a Persian saying, “until I met a man who had no feet.” Anger * - Two ways to control: -Wait, don’t do anything. Yes, even count to ten (or one hundred)! -Calm yourself by doing something totally opposite of what caused your anger. Do something that you enjoy: playing an instrument, exercising, gardening, etc. Theories of emotion Common sense James-Lange (1884-1885) Cannon-Bard (1927) Schacter-Singer (Schacter’s Two-Factory Theory, 1971) TEST III CHAPTER 11 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: STRESS, COPING, AND WELL-BEING Health psychology (definition) Pscychoneuroimmunology (PNI) Stress (definition) Distress * - Negative or undesirable stress. Eustress * - Positive or desirable stress. Cataclysmic events Personal Stressors Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Background stressors Psychophysiological disorders (Psychosomatic disorders) Hypochondriasis * - A preoccupation with minor bodily problems and the presence of illnesses that appear to be imaginary. Stress appraisal Primary * - Deciding if a situation is relevant to oneself and if it is a threat. Secondary * - Deciding how to cope with a threat or challenge. Hans Selye General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm Resistance Exhaustion Burnout * - A job-related condition of mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion related to the exhaustion stage of the GAS. Epinephrine - stress hormone Lymphocyte B * - Found in bone marrow and releases antibodies that fight bacterial infections. Lymphocyte T * - Forms in Thymus and other lymphatic tissues; attacks cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. Coping Emotion focused Problem focused Avoidant coping Defense mechanisms Emotional insulation Martin Seligman - Learned Helplessness External/Internal locus of control Hardiness Commitment Challenge Control Social Support Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman Type A behavior pattern Type B behavior pattern Type D behavior (Johan Denollet) Psychological aspects of cancer Smoking -Every cigarette smoked takes 12 minutes of your life. -Each year throughout the world, tobacco kills 4 million of its 1.2billion customers. -The World Health Organization estimates the number of annual death rates will soon reach 10 million, meaning that half a billion people alive today will be killed by tobacco. -Smokers have higher rates of depression, chronic disabilities, and divorce. -One in three who try cigarettes become addicted - a higher rate than for heroin or cocaine! Social support Spirituality and faith * - A study that followed 5286 Californians over 28 years found that, after controlling for age, gender, ethnicity, and education, frequent religious attendees were 36 per cent less likely to have died in any year. Another study found that at age 20 a life expectancy of 83 years for frequent attenders and 75 years for infrequent or non-attenders of religious services. Creative nonadherence Reactance Positively framed messages Negatively framed messages Subjective well-being Set point for happiness CHAPTER 9 DEVELOPMENT Developmental psychology (definition) Nature-nurture issue Cross-sectional research Longitudinal research Sequential research Chromosomes Genes Zygote Embryo Fetus Age of viability Genetic influences Phenylketonuria (PKU) Sickle-cell anemia Tay Sachs disease Down Syndrome Teratogens Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Neonate * - A term for newborn infants during the first weeks after birth. Reflexes Rooting Sucking Grasping * - A neonatal reflex consisting of grasping objects placed in the palms. Gag Startle (Moro) * - Evoked by sudden loss of support or the sounding of a loud noise; in response, the arms are extended and brought toward each other. Babinski Vision: babies love to look at human faces! Habituation Maturation * - The physical growth and development of the body and nervous system. Also, the unfolding of biologically predetermined patterns of behavior. Cephalo-caudal development * - Development proceeding from head to toe. Proximo-distal development * - Development from the center of the body to the extremities. Motor primacy principle (readiness principle) * - A condition that exists when maturation has advanced enough to allow rapid acquisition of a particular skill. “Until the necessary physical structures are developed, no amount of practice will be sufficient to develop a skill.” Harry Harlow Attachment Contact Comfort * - A pleasant and reassuring feeling human and animal infants get from touching or clinging to something soft and warm, usually their mother. Konrad Lorenz (Ethologist) Critical period * - An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. Imprinting * - The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. Also, a restricted for learning. Mary Ainsworth (The Ainsworth strange situation) Securely attached Avoidant Ambivalent Disorganized-disoriented Father’s Role Child care Parenting styles and social development Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Uninvolved Temperament (Chess and Thomas studies) 40% Easy 10% Difficult 30% Slow to warm up Erik Erikson Psychosocial development Trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Ego-Integrity vs. despair Cognition Schema * - A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. Assimilation * - Interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas. Accomodation * - Adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. Jean Piaget Cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Object permanence Stranger anxiety Preoperational stage Egocentric thought Theory of mind * - Ability to read other people’s feelings and thoughts. Intuitive thought * - Thinking that makes little or no use of reasoning and logic. Concrete operational stage Conservation mastery Reversibility Time, space, number Formal operations Abstract thinking Hypothetical thinking Information processing Meta cognition Lev Vygotsky Zone of proximal development (ZPD) “Scaffolding” Adolescence Puberty Menarche * - The onset of menstruation; a woman’s first menstrual period, usually around age 11 or 12. Spermarche Lawrence Kohlberg Moral development Level I Preconventional morality Stage 1 Punishment orientation * - Actions are evaluated in terms of possible punishment, not goodness or badness; obedience to power is emphasized. Stage 2 Pleasure-seeking orientation * - Proper action is determined by one’s own needs; concern for the needs of others is largely a matter of “You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours,” not of loyalty, gratitude, or justice. Level II Conventional morality Stage 3 Good boy/girl orientation * - Good behavior is that which pleases others in the immediate group or which brings approval; the emphasis is on being “nice”. Stage 4 Authority orientation * - The emphasis is on upholding law, order, and authority, doing one’s duty, and following social rules. Level III Postconventional morality Stage 5 Social-contract orientation * - Support of laws and rules is based on rational analysis and mutual agreement; rules are recognized as open to question but are upheld for the good of the community and in the name of democratic values. Stage 6 Morality of individual principles * - Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles that tend to be general, comprehensive, or universal; high value is placed on justice, dignity, and equality. Carol Gilligan – “Morality of Caring” Erik Erikson “Search for Identity” Psychosocial development stages (again) Identity vs. role confusion Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Ego-Integrity vs. despair Adolescent suicide concerns Adulthood Physical development Menopause Midlife transition Marriage, children, and divorce: changes and patterns Changing roles of men and women Androgyny * - The presence of both “masculine” and “feminine” traits in a single person (as masculinity and femininity are traditionally defined within one’s culture). Cognitive changes Misconceptions Fluid intelligence Crystallized intelligence Senility Alzheimer’s disease Disengagement theory of aging Activity theory of aging Life review Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) Five stages of impending death (DABDA) CHAPTER 14 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social psychology (definition) Attitudes Message source Attitude communicator Characteristics of the message Characteristics of the target Routes of persuasion Central route processing Peripheral route processing Need for cognition Cognitive dissonance (Leon Festinger, 1957) Methods for reducing cognitive dissonance Modify cognitions Change perceived importance Add cognitions Deny relationships of cognitions Social cognition Schemas Central traits Impression formation Attribution theory Situational causes Dispositional causes Attribution biases Halo effect Assumed-similarities bias Self-serving bias Fundamental attribution error Attributions in a cultural context Collectivistic orientation Individualistic orientation Social influence Conformity Solomon Asch (1951) Four conformity conclusions Status Social support Groupthink Compliance Compliance techniques Foot-in-the-door Door-in-the-face That’s-not-all Not-so-free-sample Norm of reciprocity I/O psychology Obedience Stanley Milgram Stereotype Self-fulfilling prophecy Prejudice Discrimination Social identity theory Reducing consequences of prejudice and discrimination (three ways) Interpersonal attraction or close attraction Proximity Mere exposure Similarity Reciprocity-of-liking effect Physical attractiveness Ten friendship qualities Passionate or (romantic) love Companionate love Three parts of love (Robert Sternberg) Decision/commitment component Intimacy component Passion component Aggression Instinct approaches Frustration-aggression approaches Frustration Observational learning approaches Prosocial behavior Diffusion of responsibility (see chapter one) Altruism CHAPTER 10 PERSONALITY Personality (definition) Psychodynamic approaches Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic theory Levels of awareness Conscious Preconscious Unconscious Id Pleasure principle Libido * - The force, primarily pleasure oriented, that energized the personality. Eros * - (life instinct) Thanatos * - (death instinct) Ego Reality principle Superego Conscience * - The part of the superego that causes guilt when its standards are not met. Ego-ideal * - The part of the superego representing ideal behavior; a source of pride when its standards are met. Erogenous zone * - Any body area that produces pleasurable sensations. Fixation * - In Freudian theory, lasting conflicts developed during a particular psychosexual state as a result of frustration or over-indulgence.. Psychosexual stages Oral stage (Birth to18 months) Oral aggressive * - A person who uses the mouth to express hostility by shouting, cursing, biting, and so forth. Also, one who actively exploits others. Oral dependent * - A person who wants to passively receive attention, gifts, love, and so forth. Anal stage (12-18 to 36 months) Retentive Expulsive Phallic stage (3 to 5-6 years) Oedipus conflict Electra Conflict Identification “Penis envy” Latency period (5-6 to puberty) Genital stage (Adolescence to adulthood) Anxiety Defense mechanisms “D-A-D” * - Deny, avoid, distort reality. Repression Regression Reaction formation Projection Rationalization Displacement Sublimation Denial * - Protecting oneself from an unpleasant reality by refusing to recognize it. Compensation * - Counteracting real or imagined weakness by emphasizing desirable traits or seeking to excel in the area of weakness or in other areas. Intellectualization * - Separating emotion from a threatening or anxiety-provoking situation by talking or thinking about it in impersonal “intellectual” terms. Isolation * - Separating contradictory thoughts or feelings into “logic-tight” mental compartments so that they do not come into conflict. Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler (striving for superiority) Inferiority complex Karen Horney (basic anxiety) Carl Jung (collective unconscious) Archetypes Trait Theory Traits Allport Cattell Eysenck “The Big Five” Learning approaches Skinner’s behaviorist approach Social cognitive approaches to personality Self efficacy Self-esteem Deterministic Biological and evolutionary approaches Temperament Learning theory Humanistic Approaches Carl Rogers Self-actualization Three conditions of a growth-promoting climate * Genuineness Acceptance Empathy Unconditional positive regard Incongruent person * - A person who has an inaccurate self-image or whose self-image differs greatly from the ideal-self. Self-concept Ideal self * - Image of the person you most like to be; similar to Freud’s ego-ideal. True self * - The actual you. Self-image * - Total subjective perception of one’s body and personality. (another term for self-concept). Psychological tests Self-report MMPI-2 Test standardization Projective personality tests Rorschach (Inkblot) test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Behavioral assessment TEST IV CHAPTER 12 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Psychopathology * - The scientific study of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Psychological disorders * - A “harmful dysfunction” in which behavior is judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, and unjustifiable. Abnormal behavior (definition) Factors for deciding abnormality * Subjective discomfort - personal, private feelings of discomfort/ unhappiness Statistical abnormality - abnormality as determined by comparing test scores Social non-conformity - disobeying societal standards for acceptable conduct Situational context - assessment of situation or context of behavior exhibited Cultural relativity - perceptions/judgements made relative to cultural values. (failure to communicate; consistently unpredictable) Two core features of abnormality * 1. Maladaptive behavior that makes it difficult to adapt to the environment and meet the demands of day-to-day life. 2. Loss of ability to control one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors adequately. Insanity vs. psychosis * - Insanity is a legal term; psychosis is a psychiatric term. Neurosis vs. psychosis * - Neurosis is manifested by high levels of self-defeating anxiety; psychosis is manifested by a loss of contact with reality. Medical perspective Psychoanalytic perspective Behavioral perspective Cognitive perspective Humanistic perspective Sociocultural perspective Labeling problems David Rosenhan/Stanford University Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) DSM-IV-TR (selected categories) * Psychotic disorders - A severe mental disorder characterized by a retreat from reality, by hallucinations and delusions, and by social withdrawal. Organic mental disorders - A mental disorder caused by brain disease or injury. Psychoactive Substance related disorders - Abuse or dependence on mood altering drugs. Mood disorders - Major disturbance of mood or emotion; depression or mania. Anxiety disorders - Disruptive feelings of fear, apprehension, or anxiety. Somataform disorders - Physical symptoms that mimic disease or injury for which there is no identifiable cause. Dissociative disorders - Temporary amnesia; multiple personality. Personality disorders - Deeply ingrained maladaptive personality patterns that are usually identifiable in early adolescence or childhood. Sexual and gender identity disorders - Any of a wide range of difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual behavior (paraphilias), or sexual adjustment. Alzheimer’s disease * - 1of 10 adults over age 65; 20% of cases are inherited Anxiety vs. fear * Anxiety is a response to an unclear or ambiguous threat; anticipation of harm. Fear is a more focused an intense; a response to a clear or specific threat. Anxiety-based disorders Adjustment disorder (“nervous breakdown”) * - An emotional disturbance caused by ongoing stressors within the range of common experience. Anxiety disorders Phobic disorder Specific phobias * - An intense, irrational fear of specific objects, activities, or situations. Social phobias * - An intense, irrational fear of being observed, evaluated, embarrassed, or humiliated by others in social situations. Panic disorder with agoraphobia Panic disorder without agoraphobia Generalized anxiety disorder “Freefloating anxiety” Obsessive-compulsive disorder Acute stress disorder * - You are tormented for less than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible events you have experienced. Posttraumatic stress disorder * - You are tormented for more than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible events you have experienced. Causes of anxiety disorders Obsessive-compulsive disorder Obsessions Compulsions Somataform disorders Hypochondriasis Conversion disorders “Glove anesthesia” * - Loss of sensitivity in the areas of the skin that would normally be covered by a glove. Somatization disorder * - Afflicted persons have numerous physical complaints such as vomiting and nausea, shortness of breath, difficulty swallowing, or painful menstrual periods. Typically, they have consulted many doctors, but no organic cause for their distress can be identified. Pain disorder * - Pain that has no identifiable physical cause and appears to be of psychological origin. Dissociative disorders Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality) Dissociative amnesia Dissociative fugue Mood disorders Major depressive disorder * - Extreme emotional depression for at least two weeks. Dysthymic disorder * - Moderately depressed mood on most days during the last two years. Mania Bipolar I Disorder Bipolar II Disorder Cyclothymic disorder * - Moderate mania and moderate depression persisting two years or more. Causes of mood disorders Norepinephrine Serotonin Learned helplessness Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) Phototherapy Suicide (who, what, when, how) Psychosis Schizophrenia (“split mind”) Delusions * - A false belief held against all contrary evidence. Depressive * - Feel that they have committed unforgivable sin or horrible crime. Somatic * - Believe that their body is “rotting away” or is emitting foul odors. Grandeur * - Think that they are extremely important. Influence * - Feel that they are being controlled by others or unseen forces. Persecution * - Believe that other are “out to get them”; extreme suspicion. Reference * - Assigning great personal meaning to unrelated events. “Word salad” Hallucinations Emotional disturbances Withdrawal Flat affect Process Schizophrenia (Slow developing) Reactive Schizophrenia (Fast developing) Positive symptoms (Type I) * - Are the presence of inappropriate behaviors. Patients may experience hallucinations, are often disorganized and deluded in their talk, and may exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage. Negative symptoms (Type II) * - Are the absence of appropriate behaviors. Patients may have toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies. Subtypes of schizophrenia: Disorganized Paranoid Catatonic Undifferentiated Residual Dopamine hypothesis Brain abnormalities Expressed emotion Overattention to stimuli Underattention to stimuli Predisposition model of schizophrenia Genetic factors Personality disorders (Moderate impairment) Antisocial personality disorder Dependent * - Lack confidence and are extremely submissive and dependent on others (clinging). Narcissistic * - Think they are wonderful, brilliant, important, and worthy of constant admiration. Histrionic * - Are dramatic and flamboyant; exaggerate emotions to get attention from others. Personality disorders (High impairment) Obsessive-compulsive * - Demand order, perfection, control, and rigid routine at all times. Schizoid * - Feel very little emotion and can’t form close personal relationships with others. Avoidant * - Are timid, uncomfortable in social situations, and fear evaluation. Personality disorders (Severe impairment) Borderline * - Self-image, moods, and impulses are erratic, and they are extremely sensitive to any hint of criticism, rejection, or abandonment by others. Paranoid * - Deeply distrust others and are suspicious of their motives. Schizotypal * - Are loners, they engage in extremely odd behavior, and their thought patterns are bizarre, but they are not actively psychotic. Childhood disorders Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Sexual and gender identity disorders * - Any of a wide range of difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual behavior, or sexual adjustment. Paraphilias * - Sexual deviations that are considered to be compulsive and destructive. Typically they cause guilt, anxiety, or discomfort for one or both participants. Pedophilia - Sex with children, or child molesting. Fetishism - Sexual arousal associated with inanimate objects. Exhibitionism – “Flashing” or displaying genitals to unwilling viewers. Voyeurism – “Peeping Tom” viewing genitals of others without permission. Transvestic fetishism - Sexual arousal from wearing clothes of opposite sex. Sexual sadism - Deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain. Sexual masochism - Desiring pain as part of the sex act. Frotteurism - Sexually touching or rubbing against an unwilling person. Social and cultural concerns Amok Ataque de nervios Koro Brain fag Locura * - Latino term for chronic psychotic symtpoms. Zar * - Term used in North Africa and Middle Eastern societies when spirits are believe to have possessed a person. Marked by shouting, head banging, singing, or weeping. May become apathetic and withdrawn. Dhat * - In Indian society, dhat is a fear of semen loss during nocturnal emission making the man feel guilty and anxious. Medical student disease CHAPTER 13 TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Psychotherapy Biomedical therapy Psychodynamic therapy Psychoanalysis Transference Free association * - Technique of having client say anything that comes to mind, regardless of how embarrassing or unimportant it may seem. Behavioral treatment approaches Aversive conditioning Systematic desensitization Hierarchy of fears Operant techniques Token system Contingency contracting Observational learning Dialectical behavior therapy Cognitive treatment approaches Cognitive-behavioral approach Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) Humanistic therapy Carl Rogers’ Person-centered therapy Gestalt therapy Interpersonal therapy (IPT) Group and family therapy Spontaneous remission Eclectic approach Biomedical therapy Drug therapy Antipsychotic drugs (major tranquilizers) Tardive dyskinesia * - A neurological disorder associated with excessive use of major tranquilizers. Antianxiety drugs or minor tranquilizers * - Drugs (such as Valium and Xanax) Antidepressant drugs (such as Lexapro and Prozac) Lithium Electroconvulsive therapy Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Psychosurgery (prefrontal lobotomy) Community psychology Deinstitutionalization XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX CHAPTER 7 THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE Intelligence (definition) G-factor Fluid intelligence Crystallized intelligence Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences Information processing approaches Practical intelligence Emotional intelligence Intelligence tests Alfred Binet Chronological age Mental Age Intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ formula Stanford Binet Intelligence Test Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV) Achievement test Aptitude test Reliability Validity Norms Mental Retardation Mild Moderate Severe Profound Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Familial Retardation Intellectually gifted Culture-fair IQ test Heritability