Download Martyrdom in Christianity and Islam Martyrdom 1fl

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Martyrdom
Martyrdom1fl
in Christianity
Christianity and
and Islam
Islam
MAHMOUD
MAHMOTJDM.
M. AYOUB
AYOUB
n
O
ue of
ne
of me
the most important marks of a person's
person'sfaith
faith or
or commitment
commitment to
to
V a religious
a religiousideology
ideology i.sis his
his readiness
readinesstotodefend
defend that
that faith
faith with
with life
life itself
itself
if
if necessary.
necessary.Examples
Examplesof
ofsuch
suchheroic
heroicsacrifice
sacrificeorormartyrdom
martyrdomabound
aboundinin born
both
heroic indifference
indifference
ancient
ancient and contemporary society.
society, In
In ancient
ancient times,
times, the heroic
such men
men as
asthe
the Stoic
Stoicphilosopher,
philosopher,Epktetus,
Epictetus,tototorrure
tortureand
anddeath
death in
in the
the
of such
affirmation
affirmation of aa noble
noble ideal
ideal earned
earned them the honor of martyrs;
martyrs; their example
example
passions and worldly
worldly life
and ideal of
of total indifference to passions
life provided
provided aa model
model
for early
early Christian
Christian martyrs.
martyrs. In
In our
our own
own time,
time, such
such men
men as Che Guaverra
Guaverra and
and
his legendary comrade Tanya
Tanya have
have been
been regarded
regarded as
as martyrs
martyrs and
and even saints
by
powerby some
some Catholic
Catholic leftist
leftist priests.
priests. Martyrdom
Martyrdom has
has been
been one
one of the most powerful instruments in the
the establishment
establishment and
and propagation
propagation of
ofaa faith or
or ideology,
ideology,
and hence
hence of
of aa new
new social
social order.
In this
this essay
essay we
we shall
shall examine
examine the
the philosophy
philosophyof
ofmartyrdom
martyrdomand
and the role
of martyrs in Christianity and Islam. We shall
of
shall first
firstconsider
considerthis
thisphenomenon
phenomenon
each of
of the
the two
two traditions
traditions separately,
separately. and
and then
thenbriefly
briefly discuss
discuss similarities
in each
towards the
the two
tWO comcomand differences
differences of concept
and
concept and
and attitude towards
the marcyr
martyr in the
Our aim
aim isis essentially
essentially to appreciate
appreciate the
the contribution which
which this
this
munities. Our
has made
made totothe
thereligio-political
religio-political situation
situation of
oftoday's
today's world.
world.
phenomenon has
phenomenon
The term
term martyr as used in the
the New
New Testament
Tesramcm means "witness."
"witness," A
A martyr
is a witness
witness not
bur to
to an
an event,
event, to
to the
the faith
faith in
in the
rhecrucified
crucified and
and
is
not to
to an idea but
risen Christ. Thus the
the author
author of
of1I John writes,
writes, ""....
thatwhich
whichwe
we have
have seen
seen
risen
.. that
eyes, which we
with our
our eyes,
with
we have
havelooked
lookedupon
uponand
and [Duched
touched wirh
with our
our hands.
hands . ., ..
we proclaim also to you.
"1 The
The first
first Christian martyr, Stephen,
Stephen, isis reported
reported
we
you. .., ..
."1
ro have
have seen the heavens
heavens open and the Son
Son of God se"olted
right hand
hand
to
seated on the right
of
ofGod.2
God. 2 Neither
Neitherininthe
theOld
Oldnor
northe
theNew
NewTestament,
Testament,however,
however,do
dowe
wesee
seeany
any
significant development
development of
ofthe
the concept
concept beyond
beyond an
an almost
almost juridical
juridical meaning
meaning
significant
of
ofwitness.
witnen.
In
Inbiblical
biblicaland
andpost-biblical
post-biblicalJudaism,
Judaism.martyrdom
martyrdomwas
was considered
considered to
to be
be an
an
individualwork
work of
ofpiety
pietyand
andtesissance
resistance totoevil.
evil. The
Thecases
cases of
of the
the woman
woman and
and
individual
her seven
seven sons
sons in
in IV
IV Maccabees
Maccabees (8:3ff)
three young
young men
men in
inDaniel
Daniel
her
(8;3ff) and the three
(ch. 3)3)have
havesurvived
survivedas
as powerful
powerful symbols
symbols in the
the liturgy
Iirurgy and
andhagiography
hagiography of
of
(ch.
67
67
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68
MAHMOUDM.
M.AYOUB
AYOUB
MAHMOUD
ENABLING
ENABLINGFACTORS
FACTORSFOR
FOR CHANG!!
CHANGE
theChurch.
Church.The
The aim
aim of
of martyrdom
martyrdom in
inJudaism
Judaism wa.1
was essentially
essentiallytotoperfect
perfectthe
the
the
victimand
andedify
edifythe
thepeople.
people. Since
Sincemartyrdom,
martyrdom, as
asaareEgious
religiousand
andmoral
moralconconvictim
cept, call
can best
best develop
develop widlin
within an
an eschatological
framework,itit is
is significant
significant
eschatological framework,
cept,
that in
in Judaism
Judaism this
this concept
concept appears
appears only
only in
in late
and apocryphal
that
late Biblical
Biblical and
apocryphal
writingsin
in an
an eschatological
eschatologicalcontext.
context.The
Theearly
earlyChurch
Church fell
fellheir
heir to
to both
both JewJewwritings
ish escharology
eschatologyand
and irs
its moral
moral implications.
implications.
ish
In Acts
Acts22:20,
22:20,St.
St. Paul
Paul acknowledges
acknowledgeshis
hisrole
roleininthe
the manyrdom
martyrdom of
of early
early
In
Christians, "when
"when the
the blood
blood of
servant Stephen
Stephen was
shed."3 The
The book
book
Christians,
of Thy
Thy servant
was shed."3
of Revelation,
Revelation,the
the apocalypse
apocalypseof
ofthe
the early
earlyChurch,
Church, presents
presents aa vivid
vivid image
image of
of
of
the
martyrs:
"I
saw
the
woman
drunk
with
the
blood
.
.
.
of
the
martyrs."
the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with (he blood ... of the martyrs."44
During the
the apostolic
apostolic age.
age, the
the concept
concept of
ofmartyrdom
martyrdom took
took on
onnew
newmeaning
meaning
During
as the
the number
number of
increased and
and their
their memory
on. Yet
the two
two
as
of martyrs
martyrs increased
memory lived
lived on.
Yet the
elements of
of witnessing
witnessing to
to one's
one'sfaith
faithand
and stoic
stoicindifference
indifferencetotopain
pain continued
continued
elements
to dominate
dominate the
the thinking
Church. Thus
Thus we
we read
read in
in II Clement
thinking of
of the
the early
early Church.
Clement
to
5:4-7 (written
96):
about A.D.
A.D. 96):
5:4-7
(written about
Peter, who
who because
because of
of unrighte.ous
unrightenus jealowy
jealousysuff.m:d
sufferednot
notone
one or
or ~o
two but
but many
many
Peter,
trials, and
and having
went to
to the
trials,
having thus
thus given
given his
his testimony
testimony went
the glotious
glotious place
place which
which
was
his due.
due. Through
Through jealousy
and suife
strife Paul
Paul showed
showed the
the way
way co
to the
the prize
prize of
was hi5
jealousy and
of
endurance;
he was
in bonds,
stoned, he
5cven times
times he
was in
bonds, he
he was
was exiled,
exiled, he
he was
was stoned,
he was
was
endurance; seven
aa herald
herald both
Doth in
in the
rhe East
East and
and in
in the
the West,
West, he
he gained
gained the
the noble
noble: fame
fame of
of his
his
faith,
all the
world, and
and when
f.irh, he
he taught
taught righteousness
righteousness to
to all
the world,
when he
he had
had reached
teached the
the
limits
his testimony
testimony before
before the
the rulers,
rulers, and
and thus
West he
he gave
gave his
rhus passed
passed from
from
limits of
of the
the West
the
the world
world and
and was
wa> taken
~akcn up
up into
into the
theHoly
HolyPlace—the
Pla{e-~he greatest
greatest example
example of
of
endurance.'
endurance.'
.
One
One of
ofthe
theearliest
earliest and
and most
most eager
eager martyrs
martyrs of
ofthe
theChurch
Churchwas
was Ignatius,
Ignatius,
Bishop
of Antioch,
Antioch, who
who died
died in
in A.D.
A.D. 108,
108. For
Foc Ignatius,
Ignatius, the
the martyr
manyrwas
was "he
"he
Bishop of
who
6 He
who imitated
imiratedChrist
ChristininHis
Hissufferings."
sufferings."6
He therefore
therefore used
used the
the term
term disciple
disciple
rather
fully theological,
theological, and
and he
rather than
than witness.
wit71eH. His
His view
view was
was fully
he insisted
insisted on
on bodily
bodily
suffering
suffering as
as aa proof
proof that
that Christ,
Christ, the
the crucified
crucified Son
Son of
of God,
God. was
was clothed
clothed in
in aa
real
body to
to be
real body.
body. Ignatius
Ignatius wished
wished his
his own
own body
be crushed
crushed between
berweell the
the teeth
teeth of
of
wild
wild beasts,
beasts, to
to become
become aaperfect
perfect loaf
loaffor
for Christ,
Christ, whose
whose own
own body
body isis reprerepre·
sented
thebread
breadand
andwine
wineofofthe
theEucharist—regarded
Eucharist-regardedby
byIgnatius
Ignatiusas
as "the
"the
sentedininthe
medicine
medicine of
ofimmortality."7
immortality."7
In
Polycarp, bishop
IIIthe
theaccount
accountofofthe
themartyrdom
martyrdomofofPolycarp.
bishopof
ofSmyrna,
Smyrna, written
written
about
A.b. 155,
155, witnessing
wimessing faith
faith to
to the
the humanity
humanityand
andsuffering
sufferillgof
ofthe
theSon
Son
about A.D.
of
ofGod
Godwas
was fully
fully developed
developed as
as aa concept."
concept." In
In the
theLeonine
leonine letters
letters of
ofabout
abour
A.D. 170 the term martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of
A.o. 170 the tcrm martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of
blood
bloodfor
forChrist.
Christ.Here,
Here,the
theexample
exampleofofStephen,
Stephen,who
whosaw
saw(witnessed)
(wimcssed)the
thegloriglori·
ACLURM002821
69
69
fied
fiedChrist
Christbefore
beforehis
hisdeath,
death, was
was used
used as
asaaproof
proofcase.
case.The
Thelelters
lettersvehemently
vehemently
protest
confessors
who
endured
protestthe
theuse
useof
ofthe
theepithet
epithetmartYrI
martyrsfor
for confessors who enduredpersecution
persecution
but
testimony with
but did
did not
not seal
seal their
their testimony
with their
their blood."
blood.9In
In The
TheShepherd
Shepherdof
ofHer·
Hermas.
manyrdom earns
carns the
martyr's salvation
mas,this
this imitator
imitator of
of Christ
Christ through
through martyrdom
the martyr's
salvation
and
glory of
and aa share
share in
in the
the glory
of Christ.
Christ. "Those
"Those who
whosuffered
sufferedfor
forthe
thename
nameof
ofdIe
die
All their
their sins
sins have
have been
been taken
takenaway."11
away."" The
Son
Son of
of God
God are
are glorious.
glorious. All
The mar.tyrs
martyrs
are
are also
alsopictured
pictured as
assitting
sitting Oil
on thrones
thrones with
with CroWIIS
crownson
onthdr
their h~ads,
heads,with
with Christ
Christ
world." Such
Such glory
glory belongs
belongs only
to those
those who
who have
have
engaged
engagedin
in judging
judging the
the worlds'
only to
suffered
crucifixion, and
sufferedstripes,
stripes,imprisonment.
imprisonment, crucifixion,
and wild
wild beasts
beasts for
for Chrisr's
Christ's name,
name,
insists
insiststhe
the author
author of
of The
The Shepherd.
Shepherd
A
A rich
richand
and elaborate
elaborate cultus
cultus evolved
evolved out
out of
of this
this great
great regard
regard for
for martyrdom
martyrdom
alld
the veneration
veneration accorded
accorded martyrs.
martyrs. We
and the
We can
can discuss
discussonly
only rhe
the beginnings
beginnings of
of
this
this cultus,
cultus, and
and some
some of
of its
its salient
salient reatutes.
features. Apparently,
Apparently, tlle
the authorities
authorities rcsponresponsible
execution by
of Polycarp
Polycarp sought
Chrissible for
for the
the execution
by burning
burning of
sought to
to prevent
prevent the
the Chrisremains which,
tians
tians from
from gathering
gathering his
his remains
which, they
they feared,
feared, would
would be
be venerated
venerated more
more
than
Christ. The
faithful protested
protested this
this accusation
accusation vehemently,
than Christ.
The faithful
vehemently, arguing
arguing thar
that
the same
same as
as worworthe
veneration accorded
accorded to
to martyrs
matlyrs for
fur their
their sacrifice
sacrifice is
the veneration
is not
not the
ship
greatly
ship which
which belongs
belongs to
to God
God alone.
alone. The
The classic
classic difference
difference here
here stared
stated and
and greatly
in the
the Eastern
Eastern Church
Church is
is between
between honor
honor or
or veneration
veneration and
and worwor·
elaborated in
elaborated
The parishioners
parishioners of
bishop did
gather the
the bones
bones of
of the
the saint
saint for
for
ship. The
ship.
of the
the bishop
did gather
them "to
"to be
bemore
more valuable
valuable than
than precious
precious stones
stones and
and finer
finer
burial. considering
considering them
burial,
than refined
relined gold
[They]laid
laidthem
theminina asuitable
suitableplace.
place. There
There the
theLord
lord
than
gold.....
. . [They]
will permit
us [they
[they said]
to gather
gather together
together in
in joy
joy and
and gladness
gladness and
and to
to
will
permit us
said] ...
. . . to
celebrate the
rhe day
day of
of his
his martyrdom
martyrdom as
as aa birthday,
birthday, in
in memory
memory of
of those
those atharhcelebrate
"12 The "birrhday of the martyr" as nn :l[JIlUal
letes who
who have
have gone
before....
letes
gone before.
. . ."12
The "birthday of the martyr" as an annual
memorial was
W3S a
Christian adaptation
adaptation of
ofpagan
pagan custom
custOm that
thatplayed
playedaacrucial
crucial
memorial
a Christian
in the
the growth
growth of
of the
the cult
cult of
of martyrs.*
martyrs. 13
role in
role
Others among
amongthe
theearly
earlyChurch
Churchfathers
fathersadvocated
advocatedgreat
greatveneration
venerationfor
for marmarOthers
the
treasures
of
rhe
Church.
Martyrdom
was
ryrs
whom
they
considercd
to
be
tyrs whom they considered to be the treasures of the Church. Martyrdom was
considered to
to be
bc aa second
second baptism,
baptism, the
the baptism
baptism of
of blood,
blood, granting
granting the
the marmar·
considered
sinand
andentry
entryinto
inroParadise.
Paradise.Martyrs
Martyrswho
whowere
were imim·
tvr immediate
immediateremission
remissionofofsin
tyr
prisoned awaiting
awaiting death,
death, their
their families,
families, and
and even
eve~ the
the towns
towns in
in which
which they
t~cy
prisoned
resided were
wete held
held in
in high
high honor.
honor. Those
Those who
who remained
remamcd steadfast
steadfast through
through imJmresided
prisonment and
and torture
torture(although
(althoughescaping
e5capingdeath)
death)gained
gainedpositions
positions among
among
prisonment
theelite
eliteofofsociety.
society. This
Thishonor
honorgave
gave them
themthe
theprivilege
privilegeofofepiscopal
episcopaloffice.14
ofncc. 14
the
From an
anearly
early period,
period,martyrs
martyrswho
whowere
were imprisoned
imprisonedwere
wereasked
asked to~opray
pray
From
thepious.
pious.ItItwas
wasaanatural
naturaldevelopdevelop·
forthe
thehealth,
health,well-being,
well· being,and
andsalvation
salvationofofthe
for
mentthat
tharsuch
suchrequests
requestsfor
forprayers
prayers came
came to
to be
berenewed
renewed after
afterthe
themartyr's
martyr's
ment
point
no
dou
bt
led
to
all
even
greater
tensioll
,bedeath.
This
controversial
death. This controversial point no doubt led to an even greater tension betweenworship
worshipof
ofthe
thedead—a
dead -acommon
commonpractice
pracriceininpre-Christian
pre-Christianpagan
pagansociety
SOCIety
tween
-andthe
theveneration
venerationofofmartyrs.
martyrs.The
Thecult
cuI of
t ofmartyrs
martyrswith
withitsitsrelics
reliesand
andshrines
shrines
—and
70
70
MAHMOUDM.
M. AYOUB
AYOUB
MAHMOIJD
ENABLlNG
fACTORS FOR
CHANGE
ENABLING FACTORS
FOR CHANGE
became the
the objca
object of
of scorn
scorntotothe
the Protestant
Protestant Reformation;
Reformation; as
asaaresult
resultthe
the Camo.
Cathobecame
lic Church
Church was
wasforced
forcedtotodefine
defineits
itstheology
theologyof
ofmarryrdom
martyrdom again
againand
and again.
again.
lie
In me
the words
of rhe
the Council
Council of
of 'frent,
Trent, which
whichmet
metin
in pan
part (0
to answer
the criticritiIII
words of
answer the
cismsof
of the
the Reformation:
Reformation:"The
"The holy
holy bodies
bodiesof
of holy
holymanyrs,
martyrs,and
and of
of omers
others
cisms
now living
living with
with Christ-which
Christ—whichbodies
bodieswere
werethe
theliving
living members
members of
of Christ
Christ
now
and the temple
are by
a~d
temple of
of the
the Holy
Holy Ghost
Ghost (I(I Corinthians
Corinthians 3:16),
3:16), and which
which are
by
Him to be raised
life, and to be
to be venerated
venerated
HIm
raiscd unto eternal
eternaIlifC,
~ glorified—are
glorified-arc w
by the
the faithful
by God
by
faithful through which
which bodies
bodies many
mwy benefits
benefits are bestowed
bestowed by
I
on men
men.,3
on
'
Christianity a rich
rich cultus
cultus arose
arose around
around the shrines and relics
While in Christiaoicy
relics of
the martyrs,
martyrs, in
in Islam
Islam this
thisphenomenon
phenomenon remained
remained limited
limited to
Shi'i Islam,
Islam, and
and
to Shi'j
even there
there took
took aa different
different form
formand
andmeaning,
meaning, The
The "friend
"friend of
of God"
God" or sainr
saint
even
in Islam,
whose shrine
shrine became
became aa place
place of pilgrimage
pilgrimage fur
for the
the pious.
pious, was
was not
Islam, whose
required to
to be a martyr.
fact, the Prophet recommended
required
martyr. In fact,
recommended that, whenever
whenever
possible, manyrs
martyrsshould
should be
be buried
buried at
at the spot where
where they
they fell
fell in
in batcle.
battle."'6 To
To
possible,
my kn~wledge,
knowledge, there
there arc
are no shrines in the Muslim world
world except
except those
those of the
m~
Shiah Imams
imams 10
in Iraq
Iraq and
and Iran
Iran;; specifically
specificaUy erected
Shlah
erected as
as memorials
memorials for martyrs.
martyrs.
Yet even
even here
here the imam's
far greater
greater thm
than simply
Yet
imam's role
role is
is far
simply that of
of martyr.
martyr.
The word
The
word shahid
shahid ("witness"),
("witness"), with its
irs derivatives,
deIivatives, occurs
OCcurs over fifty
fifty times
ofthese
thesereferences,
references, the
the emphasis
emphasis is on its
its linguistic
linguistic
in the
the Quran.
Quean. In
Inmost
mostof
meaning
witness here
here on
on earth
earth to
to the oneness of God,
God, the aposmea~ing and usage as witness
tleship of
of Muhammad,
Muhammad, and
and the
the truth of the faith.
are not
not in a
faith. Witnesses
Witnesses are
tleshIp
category
by themselves
themselvesbut
butare
areclassed
classedwith
withdIe
theprophets,
prophets, the
the righteous,
righteous, and
category by
the
that is,
with God.
rhe: truthful—
truthful-mat
is, with those who have
have found favor
favor with
God.IT
17
The
to us
of concern
concern to
us is:
is; Who
Who is
is a martyr?
martyr? The
The answer,
answer, as
as
The first
first question
question of
we
shall see,
see, isisin
in the
the end legally
determined. A
A man,
man, we
we ate
are told, said to
we shall
legally determined.
the
booty. Another may
rhe Prophet:
Prophet: "A
'''A man
man may
may fight in quest
quest of
ofboory.Anomer
may fight
fight for fame
and still
status. Who among these would be
fur aa show
show of status.
be fighting
still another
another for
in the
fights in
in order that
the way
way of God?" The Prophet
Prophet answered,
answered, "Whoever
"Whoever fights
the word
God be uppermost,
be lighting
fighting in
in the way
of God."18
God.""
uppermost, would
would be
way of
word of God
The famous traditionist, Ibn
Ibn Hajar
Rajar al-Asqalani,
al-Asqalani, comments on this hadith
hat/jth
("Tradition
("'Ihdition of the Prophet"):
Prophet"): "One
"Onemay
mayfight
fightfor
fur one
oneof
offive
five reasons:
reaso~: booty;
booty;
aa show
or a show
others; in defense
braveI)'; or
show before
before others;
defense of
of wealth,
wealth, family,
family, or
or
show of bravery;
land;
one of
land; and
and out
Out of
ofanger.
anger. Any
Anyone
ofthese
rhese could
could in
in itself
itselfbe
bepraiseworthy
praiseworthy or
or
the
as the
the main
main purpose
purpose remains
remains that
that the
the 'word
'word of
of God
God
the opposite.
opposite. So
So long
long as
be
it matbe uppermost'
uppermost' (which
(which isis here defined as
as defending the
the cause
cause of
of Islam), ir
ters
ters not
not what
whatother
otherreasons
reasonsmay
mayexist
existasassecondary
secondal)'causes."t9
causes.""
In
yet another tradition,
tradition, the
the Prophet
Prophetwas
was asked
asked whether a man
man fighting
fighting
In yet
for
have aa reward
reward with
with God
God on the
fur material
mllterial rewards
rewards would also
also have
the day
day of
ofresurresurrection.
"Nothing." He continued, "God
rection. The Prophet answered,
answered. "Nothing."
"God would
would not
not
ACLURM002822
71
71
accept
seell: by
by
acceptaadeed
deed unless
unlessitit isis done
done sincerely
sincerelyfor
forHim
Himand
and that
that the doer seek
mis
this only
only His
His (God's)
(God's) face.""
face."20
At
At least
leastin
in early
earlyIslam,
Islam,the
theapplication
applicationof
of the
the term
term martyr
martyr was
wasnot
not limited
limited
to
to the person who
who is
is killed
killed in
in the way
way of
of God
God on
on the
the battldidd.
battlefield. Martyrdom
Martyrdom
isis an
way of God.
an act
act of jihad
jihad (striving)
(striving) in
in the way
God. Jihad.
Jihad, however,
however,contraty
contrary to
to
the
West, is not simply
simply militance:
militance: more basic
basic is
is
the common
common view
view held
held in
in the West,
theji»adagainsc
theevil
evilininone's
oo~'sown
own soul
soul and
and in
in society.
society. It
thefihadagainst the
It isis this
this inner
inner pupurity
rity resulting
resulting from
from the
the Jihad
jihad of the
the soul
soul that
that creates
creates the
the right
right intemion
intention of
of
serving
whatever way
serving the
the cause
cause of
of [ruth
truth in whatever
waypossible.
possible.In
Inaddition
addition to
to dying
dying in
in
deferue
life, therefore,
cllerefore, the act of
of falling off
off one's
defense of
of one's
one's faith,
faith, property,
property, or life,
one's
mount, dying
dying of
of snakebite, or drowning
Likedrowning is
is also
also regarded
regarded as
as martyrdom.
martyrdom. Likewise,
from his house collapsing
wise, he
he who
who dies
dies from
from a stray
stray arrow
arrow or
or bullet,
bullet, or from
is considered
considered a martyr.
martyr. Even
down
down upon
upon him, is
Even those
those who
who die
die of
of the plague
or a stomach
are considered marstomach ailment,
ailment, or a woman who
who dies
dies in
in childbirth,
childbirth, arc
tyrs.
Abbas, is
is said
said to
to have
have declared:
declared: "A
'~ man
tyrs. The
The famous
famous tradiciomst,
traditionist, Ibn Abbas,
dies in his
bis bed in
in the
theway
way of
ofGod,
God,yet
yethe
heisisaamartyr?"11
martyr."" Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, in spite.:
spite
of all
all this,
this, the true
true martyr
martyr is
is he who
who is
is slain
slain in the
the way
way of God.
God.
Early
with
Early traditionisrs
traditionists may
may have
have used
used the
the term martyr very
very broadly
broadly and
and with
of a special
because they feared the
the rise
rise of
caution because
special cult of martyrs.
martyrs. 'Dms,
Thus, in relaof Abu Hurayrah,
Hurayrah, the
the Prophet
Prophet is
is said to
to have
have dede·
tionship to
authoricy of
tionship
to the authority
clared: "Whoever has faith
God and
andin
inHis
His apostle,
apostle, observes
observes regular
regular prayers
prayers
faith in God
fasts the month of Ramadan.
shall be
to make
make
and fasts
Ramadan, it shall
be incumbem
incumbent upon God to
him enter
enter Paradise,
Paradise, whether
fights in the way
way of
whether he
he fights
of God
God or remains
remains in
in the
of his birth."
birth:' Yet
Yet when the
the people
people asked
asked ififthey
Lhey should
should convey
convey this glad
land of
didnot
notanswer
answer directly.
directly. Instead, he
he described
described
tiding to
to others,
others, the
the Prophet
Prophetdid
ofthe
themartyrs
martyrsininParadise.s!
Paradise. 12 Perhaps
Perhaps for this
tills reason
reason itit was
was
high station
station of
the high
the jurist rather than the
the orator
orator or
or theologian
theologian who derermined
the principle
principle
determined the
according to
woman may
may be considered
considered to be
be aa martyr.
martyr.
according
to which
which aa man or woman
We cannot
detail into
into this
thi~ technical
tethnical topic
topic of
ofthe
the qualifications
qualifications
We
cannot enter in detail
of aa martyr;
martyr; aa few
few general
general remarks
remarks must
mustsuffice.
suffice. Three
Three categories
categories of
of martyrs
martyrs
of
distinguished: martyr of
of this
this world,
world, martyr of this and the
the world
world to
to
may be distinguished:
come, and martyr
martyr of
of the
the world
world to
to come
come only.
only. The
The first
first is
is he
he who
who dies
dies for
for aa
come,
other than
than that
that of
offaith.
faith. The
Thesecond
secood isis he
hewho
who isis slain
slain for
for no
no
worldly cause other
but that
that "the
"theword
word of
ofGod
God be
beuppermost."
uppermost." Such
Such aa martyr
martyt is
is to
to
other reason
reason but
other
be buried
buried in
in his
his clothes, without
without washing
washing or shrouding-ordinarily,
necessary
be
shrouding — ordinarily, necessary
rites for the dead.
dead. The
Themartyr
martyrof
ofthis
thisworld
worldisis likewise
likewise buried
buried in
in his
his clothes,
clothes.
rites
since in the
the end
endhis
hismotives
motives are
are known
known only
only to
to God,
God,who
whowill
will reward
reward each
ea(h
since
person according
according- to
a1-Khattab and
and All
Ali
person
to his
his acts
acts and
and intentions. Umar Ibn al-Khattab
Ibn Abi
Abi Talib, the second and
md fourth of
of the
the four
four tightly
rightly guided
guidedcaliphs
caliphs who
who
1bn
and died
died later
laterof
oftheir
theirwounds,
wounds, were
were given regular burial. While
While
were stabbed
stabbed and
were
72
man:stoma M.
M. AYOUB
lIIIU1MOUD
AYOUB
ENABLING
FACTORS FOR
CHANGE
ENABLING FACTORS
FOR CHANGE
both were
consideredmartyrs
martyrsin
inthe
the way
wayof
ofGod,
God, 5uch
such burial
burial indicates
indicates that
that
hmh
wen: considered
they were
werenor,
not, technically
technicallyspeaking,
speaking,martyrs.
martyrs.The
Thethird
thirdcaliph,
caliph,Uthman,
Uthman, who
who
they
Z
wasslain
slainin
in his
his house,
house, was
wasalso
alsonot
notwashed
washedor
orshrouded.
shrouded."
)
was
Finally, the
the Quran
Quran counsels
to make
Finally,
counsels Muslims
Muslims to
make peace
peace among
among themselves.
themselves.
Yet if
ifone
onegroup
grouptransgresses
transgressesagainst
against
another,that
thatgroup
groupmust
must be
be fought
fought un:
unYct
another,
til it
it rerurns
returns to
to the
Thus, we
weare
aretold,
told,after
after the
the battle
battle of
of NahraNahratil
the right
right path.24
path." Thus,
wan against
against the
the Kharijites
Kharijites(A.D.
(Aro.659),
659),Ali
Allhad
hadthe
the dead
dead on
on his
his side
side buried
wan
buned
as martyrs.
martyrs. This
Thisprinciple
principlehas
hascontinued
continued to
to be
be observed
observed (and
(and often
often abused)
abused)
as
to the
to
the present
present day.
day.
As in
in Christianity,
the blood
his or
or
As
Chri5tianity. the
blood of
of the
the martyr
martyr in
in Islam
Islam washes
washes away
away his
her sins.
sins. It
It is
important to
that even
her
is important
to observe
ob5erve that
even though
though women
women are
arc exempted
exempted
from actual
actual fighting
fighting for
religious and
and juristic
juristic reasons,
reasons, the
the first
first martyr
martyr in
in Islam
from
for religious
Islam
was aa womanwoman—Sumayya.
Sumayya,the
themother
motherof
of Ammar
Ammar Ibn
Ibn Yasir,
who was
wastortured
tortured
was
Yasir, who
to death
death with
with hcr
her husband
husband and
and son by the Mcccan
Arabs hefure
before the
the conquest
conquest
to
Mcccan Arabs
of
the city.
city.The
Theinjunction
injunction to
to let
let the
the blood
blood of
of the
the martyrs
martyrs be
be their
their purification
purification
of the
is
said to
to have
have been
been given
given by
by the
the Propher
Prophet regarding
regarding those
is said
those slain
slain in the battle
battle
them in
in their
their blood
and do
of
of 'Mud."
Uhud. 1 ' Ile
He said:
said: "Shroud
"Shroud them
blood and
do not
not wash
wash them.
them.
on the
For
no man
man who
who is
is injured
injured in
in the
the way
wayof
ofGod
Godbut
but that
that he
Por no
he shall
shall come on
the
day
of resurrection
resurrection with
with his
his blood
blood gushing
gushing OUt
out of
day of
his veins.
veins. The
color shall
shall
of his
The color
be
be that
that of
of blood
blood and
and the
the odor
odor that
that of
of musk."26
musk.":!6
The martyrs
—"those who
who are
ate slain
slain in
in the
of God"-the
God"— theQuran
The
martyrs-"those
the way
way of
tells
Quran tells
us
are not
not to
dead; rather,
with their
us "
"are
to be
be reckoned
reckoned as
as dead;
ratner, they
they are
are alive
alive with
their Lord
Lord sussusmince"
Islamic
in the
the language
language and
and
rained."z1
Islamiceschatology
e5clutologyhas
hasalways
always been
been expressed
expressed in
the
framework of
of this
this life.
life. Hence,
Hence, tradition
tradition very
displayed great
the social
social framework
very early
eady displayed
great
imagination
of the
in Paradise."
imagination in
in depicting
depicring the
the great
great pleasures
pleasures of
the martyrs
martyrs in
Paradise.'· Yet
Yer
the
rhe true
tlUe martyr
martyr for
fur God
God retains
retains his
his desire
desire for
for martyrdom
martyrdom even
even in
in Paradise.
Paradise.
Malik
Ibn Anas
Anas related
related that
that tbe
the Prophet
Prophet said:
Malik Ibn
said: "No
"No one
one who
who enters
enters Paradise
Paradise
would
wish to
to rerum
return [Q
to this
if he
he were
to possess
all that
that is
would wish
this world,
world, even
even if
were to
possess all
is in
in
it,
the martyr.
He would
would desire
desire ro
to return
return to
to the
the world
to be
be killed
ie, except
excepr the
manyr. He
world to
killed ten
ten
times
of the
the great
great honor
honor (with
[with God]
sees in
in this
this act."29
rimes because
because of
God) which
which he
he sees
act,"29 "The
"The
door
under the
are told
told in
in another
Paradise," we
we are
another tradition,
tradition, "is
"is under
the glittering
glittering
door of
of Paradise,"
swords:']·
swools.
'30
Tradition
numerous examples
examples of
of marryrs
martyrswho
who sensed
sensed the
the odor
odor of
Tradition records
records numerous
of
Paradise
on the
the battlefield
battlefield and
and thus
thus gladly
gladly met
met their
their death.
death. One
Paradisc on
One such
such examexample
_latishwho
whoprayed
prayedon
on the
the morning
morning
ple is
is that
that of
of aa man
man called
called Abdallah
Abdallah Ibrt
IbnJahsh
of
Uhud, saying:
of the
the battle
battle of
ofUhud.
saying: "0
"0God,
God. let
letme
metoday
[Oday meet
meetaastrong
srrong and
and brave
brave
knight
kill me
me and
and cut
my nose
nose and
and two
ears. Thus
Thus when
when II shall
knight who
who will
will kill
cur off
off my
two ears.
shall
meet
servant, fur
for what.
what were
your nose
nose and
and
meet you
you tomorrow,
tomorrow, you
you will
will say,
say. 'My
'My servant,
were your
ears
in You
You [for
[for your
your sake],
sake], my
my Lord.
Lord, and
and
cars cut
cut off?'
off?' II will
will then
then answer,
answer. 'It
·It was
was in
31
in
in your
your apostle.'"
apostle ...•"
Shiah
have made
made the
the ethos
ethos of
martyrdom and
Shiall Muslims
Muslims have
of martyrdom
and suffering
suffering aa basic
basic
ACLURM002823
73
principle
faith and
andpiety.
piety. Every
Every year
lim ten
days of
principle of
of their
their faith
year during
during the
the first
ten days
of MuMuharram
first month
ofthe
the Muslim
Muslim calendar),
calendar). they
they relive
relive the
the experience
experience
harram (the
(the first
month of
of
imam. who
who through
through his
at Karbala
Karbala propro·
third imam,
his death
death at
the third
of Husayn
Husayn Ibn
Ibn Ali,
Ali, the
way of
of God.
God.
supreme example
example of
ofself-sacrifice
self-sacrifice in
vided
vided for
for all
all Muslims
Muslims the
the supreme
in the
the way
In
the tragedy
tragedy of
of Karbala
ideal of
new
A.D. 680,
680, the
the ideal
of martyrdom
martyrdom took
took on
on new
In the
Karbala in
in A.D.
theological
pietisric significance.
significance, Thus
Prince of
of Martyrs"
Martyrs"
"the Prince
theological and
and pietistic
Thus Husayn,
Husayn, "the
said to
to have
have heen
been
and
Youths of
the People
People of
of Paradise,"
Paradise." was
was said
of the
the Youths
of the
and "Master
"Master of
for this
this sacrifice
sacrifice from
beginning of
of creation,
creation. History
History was
was read
read
destined
destined for
from the
the beginning
backward
beyond and
and forward
furward to
of the
world.
backwardfrom
from him
him to
to Adam.
Adam, and
and beyond
to the
the end
end of
the world.
DefOre
Before him,
him, history
history was
wasaalong
longprelude
prelude to
to the
the drama
drama of
of suffering
suffering and
and death
death
of
and immediate
immediate relatives
relatives were
were the
cemral characters,
characters.
of which
which he.
he, his
his friends.
friends, and
the central
Mter
is a period
of intense
period of
intense hope
hope in
in the
the anticipation
anticipation of
of the
the return
return
After him.
him, history
history is
of
twelfth imam
of the
the Mahdi
Mandi (his
(his ninth
ninth descendant
descendant and
and twelfth
imam of
of the
the Shiah
Shish ~omcnu­
community)
ofHusayn
for rhelf
nity) to
to avenge
avenge the
the death
death of
Husayn and
and vindicate
vindicate the
the fairhful
faithful for
their actual
actual
and
vicarious sharing
the sufferings
sufferings of
M~­
and vicarious
sharing in
in the
of rheholy
the holy family
family of
ofthe
the Prophet
Prophet Muhammad.
himself was said ro
to have:
have been
been rold
told by
by the Prophet ~n
in
Yet Husayn himself
hammad. Yet
"he has
has an
an exalted
exalred station
station with
with God which
which he cannot attain
a dream that "he
except
mattyrdom."31
except through
through mattyrdom.""
The
death of
ofHusayn,
Husayn, moreover,
moreover. became
became for
for Shiah
Shiah Muslims
Muslims aa source
source of
The death
of
redemption
and healing.
healing. According
According to
to aa well-known
well-known uadit~on,
just before
be~ore
redemption and
tradition, just
his
leaving with
am leaving
with you
you(the
[the Mushm
Muslim commUulty)
community]
his death
death the
the Prophet
Prophet said:
said: "I am
the
two weights
weights onto
if you
you hold
hold fast,
you shall
shall never
never go
go astray:
astray: the
the
fast, you
the two
onto which
which if
Book
my family,
family, the
the people
people of
of my
my household.
household. They
They shall
shall never
never
Book of
of God
God and
and my
" This
spring
be separated
they come
the spring."
spring."'3
This paradisiacal
paradisiacal spring
be
separated until
until they
come to
to me
me at
at the
shall
shall be
be given
given to
to the
the Prophet
Prophet on
on the
the day
day of
of judgment
judgment to
to quench
quench the
the thirst
thirst .of
of
the
piau:; "on
the day
day of
great thirst:'
Both the
the Quran
Quran and
and the
the family
famdy
" Both
of the
the great
thirst."34
the pious
"on the
of
will judge
and intercede
intercede before
before God
his Prophet
for those
of Muhammad
Muhammad will
judge and
God and
and his
Prophet for
those
and mistreated
of the
Muslims who
honored the
the two
two weights
weights or
neglected and
mistreared
Of neglected
of
the Muslims
who honored
them. Husayn
Husayo will
will also
also stand
before God
on the
the day
day of
of resurrection
rcsurrection as
as aa headthem.
stand before
God on
headless
motend with his
ti)r his followers."
followers." For
his murderers and intercede for
less body
body to
to contend
the daughter
daughter of
of Muhammad
Muhammad and
and mother
mother of
ofHusayn,
Husayn,
Shiah piety it is
is Fatmah.
Patmah, the
who has
has in
this world
world embodied
embodied the
the suffering
suffering of
of her
her descendants
descendants and
and who
who
who
in this
l6
continues to
rears of
of anguish
anguish even
continues
to shed
shed tears
even in
in Paradise.
Paradise."
This ethos
quick and
and spectacuspectacu·
This
ethos of
of suffering
suffering stands
stands in
in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to
to the
the quick
lar success
success of
lar
ofthe
the early
early generarions
generations of
of Muslims.
Muslims. Yet
Yetit
it is
isitself
itself the
the prod~c~
product of
of
that military
military and
and economic
cconomic success,
success, coming
~oes. ou~
of the
the conviction
con~lwon
that
coming as
as i~
it does
out of
that political
political justice
justice must,
in the
the end,
end.reflect
reflect divine
dIVIne justice.
JustIce. God
Go~ Himself,
Himself.
that
must, in
in Shah
Shiahtheology,
theology, isis bound
boundonly
onlyby
by His
Hisown
own justice.
justic.e, Hence,
Hencc, Shiites
Shiites repeat
repeat
in
daily in
their worship
worship the
the prayer.
prayer: "0
"0God,
God. we
we desire
deSlfe of
o~ You
you an
an honorable
ho~orable
daily
in their
5tate in
in which
which You
You honor
humlhate hypocrisy
hypoCflsy and
state
honor Islam
Islam and
and irs
its people,
people, and
and humiliate
and
its people.
people. [We
[We pray)
in itir you
you render
render us
us among
among those
those who
who call
call [others]
lothers)
its
pray] that
that in
74
MAHMOUD
AYOUB
NAHMOUD M.
M. AYOUB
BNABUNG
FACTORS FOR
FOR CHANGE
CHANGE
ENABLING FACTORS
[Q
you, and that
thatyou
youmake
makeus
usleaders
leaders to
toyour
yourway."
way." This ideal
to obedience to you,
order will
will come
come only
onlywhen
when human
human justice will
will approx.imate
approximate divine jUlit!ce
justice most
most
closely. which
closely,
whichcan
canonly
onlybe
beachil:ved
achieveduuder
underthe
the leadership
leadership of
of an
an imam
imam proby God
tected by
God from
from error.
error. In
In this
this hope-or
hope—or rather.
rather, humanly unrealized goal
-polirical
— politicalidealism
idealismand
and theology
theology meet.
noteworthy thar
Shiites, more
Suoni majority
majority of
ofMuslims,
Muslims,
It is noteworthy
that Shiites,
more than the Sunni
have risked
have. moreover,
moreover, mainhave
tisked life
life and
and Muslim
Muslim uniry
unity in
in this quest. They have,
tuined a long
long and
and recognizable
recognizable list of martyrs.
tained
martyrs. The
The list begins
begins with
with Abel
Abel (QabiI)
(Qabil)
and includes the Prophet Muhammad and all the imams but one. The twelfth
to close
close this
rhis long
long chapter
chaprer of
of wrongwrongimam. the Hidden
Hidden Imam,
Imam. will
will return
return to
imam,
martyrdom, and establish
establish justice
doing and martyrdom,
justice in
in the
the earth. Thus the Prophet
is said [Q
have declared:
lone
is
to have
declared: "Even
"Evenifif there
there remains
remains [only
[only]
one day
day of the life of
world. God will
man of
of my progeny shall appear,
the world,
will prolong thar
that day llntil
until aa man
whose name
whose agnomen is my
shall fill
fill
whose
name is
is my
my name
name and whose
my agnomen.
agnomen. He shall
die earth with equity and justice as
the
as it has
has been filled
filled with
with inequity
inequity and injustice.""
variations, is
justice."” This
This rradition,
tradition, with minor variations,
is accepted
accepted by
by both Shiah
Sunni traclitionists,
traditiollists. Thus
Thus the
the ideal
idealititexpresses
expresses has
has gained
gained official
official accepand Sunni
tance
Muslims of
groups.
tance among Muslims
of both groups.
This ideal of great
great justice was
wasrealized
realizedfor
foraabrief
brieftime
time only
only by
bythe
the Prophet,
Prophet,
Muhammad, in Medina.
realization of the ideal of
Muhammad,
Medina. The
The Quran refers
refers to
to the realization
a good society
societyin
in aastatement
statement coming
coming shortly
shortly before
beforethe
the Prophec's
Prophet's death
death and
instituted: "Today
"Today have I perfected
after all the obligations of Islam
Islam had been instituted:
your religion
have completed my
my favor towards
have acacyour
religion for
for you;
you; I have
towards you
you and have
cepted Islam
Islam as
as a religion for you."38
yoU."38 Martyrs
cepted
Martyrsthroughout
throughout Islamic history have
been an affirmation
affirmation of this hope, and aa recognition
recognition that this
this hope remains
remains
folly. Hence,
Hence. the
the challenge
challenge remains
remains
ideal unfulfilled
unfulfilled because
because of human folly.
an ideal
as powerful
as
powerfultoday
todayininIran.
Iran,Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, the
the Arabian
Arabian peninsula.,
peninsula, and even here
was when
was first
the New
New World as it was
in the
when it was
first uttered.
their lives
lives and wealth
"Surely God
God has
has exchanged
exchanged with
with the people of faith their
they shall have Paradise:
so that they
Paradise: they
they fight
fight in
in the
the way
way{)f
of God,
God, they
they kill
kill and
are
killed.., . ."39
are killed.
:'39 This verse
versecontinues,
continues, "It
"Jrisisaapromise
promiseincumbent
incumbentupon
upon Him
Him
truth. in
in the
the Torah
Torah and the Gospel."
Gospel." Thus Islam
Islam has
in truth,
has from
from the
the beginning
major scriptures revealed
recognized dle
the place and value of
of martyrdom
martyrdom in the major
befure
an earlier
revealed before
before it.
it. In art
earlier surah
surah of
of the
the Quean,
Quran, revealed
before the
the principle of
jihad was
was established
establishedfor
forthe
theMuslim
Muslimcommunity,
community,the
theQuran
Quran alludes
alludes to
to the
40 who became the subject of
of much exeexe·
famous Christian
Christian martyIS
martyrs of
ofNajran
Najtano
getical
getical and hadith scholarship.
scholarship. It
It isis therefore
thereforeimportant
important to
to ask,
ask, in
in conclusion,
condusion,
towatd marabout the
the similarities
similarities and differences
differences in
about
in the
the view
view of
ofand
and attitude
attitude toward
two religious
religious traditions.
[[aditions.
tyrs in the
the two
tyrs
Perhaps the most obvious
differeuce is
obvious and
and important
important historical difference
is that
that while
ACLURM002824
75
in Christianity martyrdom
martyrdom was
was a glorious
glorious struggle
struggle before
before Christendom
Christendom became
a world
Islam the Jihad
mar·
world power
powerunder
under Constantine.
Constantine, in Islam
jihad or struggle
struggle of the marreligious. social.
tyrs
tyrs was
wasinstituted
instituted after Islam became a religious,
social, and
and political order.
Thus, when the symbol of
cross, became
of supreme
supreme martyrdom, the cross,
became the
the banner
banner
under which political wars were
were waged.
waged, the
the significance
significanceof
of me
the principle
principle alto·
altogether became subjecr
subject to
to question and doubt. The most intense protest against
this
seen in the radical
radical Reformation
Reformation arul
rich and
this "distonion"
"distortion" may
may be
be seen
and the
the rich
and Anabaptists
Anabaptists have
have left as their legmoving martyrologies
martyrologies that
that Mennonites and
acy
was therefore he "who sufacy for
for posterity.
posterity.The
The ideal
ideal martyr in Christianity was
fered stripes,
crucifixion and wild beasts ...
Is it because
because of
stripes, imprisonment,
imprisonment, crucifixion
. . ."" Is
this
thar even
even among
among committed
committed
this loss
loss of
of the
the original
original meaning
meaning of rhis
this ideal that
is no
ems it was for
fundamentalist
Christians martyrdom is
fundamentalist Christians
no longer
longer the
the imp
impetus
for the
early
early Church?
In Islam,
Islam, the ideal
ideal martyr
marEyr is
is he
he who
who strives
strives in
way of God "with his
in the way
haud.,
tongue. and
and. with
with his
his heart."
heart." Yet
Yet striving only
hand, with his tongue,
only with
with the heart
hcatt
is considered
weakest of faith."41
on outward strugconsidered to
to be "the weakest
faith."41 This emphasis 011
gle does
wild and
and uncontrolled
uncontrolledwarfare,
warfare. however;
however; rather,
advo·
does not imply wild
rather, itit advoagainst evil.
evil. (At
(At any
any rate, such
such
cates
cates aa regulated
regulated struggle for
for the good and against
is
definite
is enjoined
enjoined in
in the
the Quran
Quran and hadith rtadition.)
tradition.) This struggle has definite
priorities
affii~tion befalls
priorities of concern;
concern: "If affliction
befalls you,"
you," advised
advised Abdallah
Abdallah Ibn
lbn Jun-'
Jun-dub, the
meson
sonof
ofaa well-known
well-known Companion,
Companion."ransom
"ransomyour
yoursouls
souls by
by your wealth.
But if
if affliction
alHiction increases,
increases, put
your souls
put your
souls before
before your
yourfaith.
faith. for
Pot aa truly
truly deprived man is he whose religion is taken away
away from
from him.
him. This is
is because
because there
is no poverty
after Paradise,
Paradise,nor
norisis there
there any
anywealth
wealthafter
afterthe
the Pire
Fire.",
is
poverty after
...·'
In spite of this lm
portantdifference,
difference, however,
however. both
important
both Islam
Islam and
and Christianity
agree
basic concept
agree on
on the basic
concept of martyrdom
martyrdom as
as witness
witnesstotothe
the truth.
truth. The true
martyr,
tWo religions also agree,
agree, is he
any ocher
martyr, the two
he who is
is free
free from any
other motive
but
that witness.
wimess. While
While the
the ideal
ideal martyr
martyr in
in Islam
Islam is the one who falls
falls on
but that
on the
battlefield,
absolure requirement
requirement for
fur martyrdom.
martyrdom.
battlefield, actual
actual fighting
fighting is
is not an absolute
Islam,
Islam, moreover,.has
moreover, hasits
its marqrs
martyrs who
whosilently
silentlyand
and bravely
bravelyendure
endure tortu[e
torture and
death. Finally,
Finally, both uaditiol15
exalted station
traditions are in agreement regarding the exalted
of the martyr with God and the
the belief
beliefthat
thar the
themartyr
martyrwill
will carry
carry the marks
marks
of his sacrifice
displayed even
even in heaven.45
heaven. ~~
sacrificewith
withhim
him to
to be displayed
In more recent Christian developments,
developments. the
the two
two ideals
ideals may
may yet
yet have more
thanever
ever before,
before. Liberation
Liberation theology—
theology- the product
product of
ofpoverty,
poverty,
in common than
piety,
awateness-may yet
piety, and political awareness—may
yetprove
provetotobe
bethe
themost
mostimportant
important phenomenon in
in modern
modernChristian
Christianhistory.
history. As
A:; a Muslim, I believe that piety withOUt
invulvemem is at best all theory and no practice. It shall be those
out political involvement
naked, care
care for
sick, and
defend the
who
hungry, clothe
who feed
feed the
the hungry,
clothe the naked,
for the
the sick,
and defend
wronged in
kingdom of God.
God.
wronged
in prison
prison who
who will
will inherit
inherit the kingdom
76
76
MAHMUUD M. AYOUB
MAHMUUD M. AYOUB
ENABLING FACTOIlS POl! CHIINGB
ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE
Notes
Notes
1. 1 John 1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Revised Standard Version.)
t.2.I John
1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Re.ised Stand:ml Version.)
Acts 7:55-56.
2.3.Acts 7:5S--%.
Sec also Acts 1:8, Luke 21:13, John 15:27, and Matt. 10:28, where the term martyr is also
Actsof1:8.
Luke 21:I3.John 15:27. and Matt. 10:28, whete the term ma'lyr is also
used3.inSee
thealso
sense
witness.
usr:d in4.the
sense
wjtnC!i5.
Rev.
17:6.ofSee
also Rev. 6:9-11, 20:4.
•
4.5.ReCyril
•. 17;6.
See also Rev.
U:9-I1.
20:4.
C. Richardson
as al,
cds., Early
ChristianFathers.
Fathers,The
TheLibrary
LibraryofChristiao
of ChristianClassiC.
Classics
S. Cyril C. Riehatdoon e, aI .• cds .• EoT/y
Ch,iJlian
(Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1953), vol. 1, p. 46.
(Philadelphia:
The Westminster Pc.... 19B). vol. I. p. 46.
6. See Rom.
6:3, and the entire epistle that revolves around this concept.
6.7.Se.
SeeRom.
Eph. 6:3.
20:2,and the eotire epistle that revolves around this concept
7.8.Se.
20:2.
SeeEph.
Richardson,
Early Chrinian Fathers, pp. 149ff.
B.9. Se.
Edrly Chrislia11 Rtlhe,... pp.
149tf.
NewRichardson,
Catholic Encyclopaedia,
vol.11.
11.1967.
1967,p.p. 312.
312.
9.
New
Co2tI",I;"
EI1"yelopaedi",
vol.
10. Ibid.
10.
Ihid.
11. Ibid.
II.
12.Ibid.
Richardson, Early Christian Fathers, p. 156.
12.
Ea'/, ChTiJtio2n liztherJ. p. 156.
13. Rich.rdson.
On the development of the cult of the martyrs and its
relationships ro
to Gracco·RomlUl
Graeco-Roman
13. On the
of [he
of [be manYQ and irs rclatiomhips
antecedents,
seedevelopment
James Hastings,
ed.,cult
Encyclopaediaa/Religion
of Religionana
and EtM
Ethics
(New Yack:
York:Chari.,
Charles
ameteden".
see James
.• Encyclapuaw
.. (New
Scribner's Sons,
n.d.), Ha"ings.
vol. 9, pp.cd
52ff„
Scribner's
Sons.p.n.d.).
14. Ibid.,
53. vol. 9. pp. )llf..
14. Ibid
.• p.
p. 51.
'3.
15.
Ibid.,
15.
Ibid., />.Khalid,
51. al-Shabidfi
16. Hasan
(Beirut: Dar al-11m 61-malayin, 1971), p. 75.
16. Sec
Hasan
Kh.lid.
17.
Quran
4:69,a/·Shahid
57:19. ji 111·1Jlam. (Beirut: Dar aI·lim liI.malayin. 1971). p. n.
17. Ahmad
Soc QUCln
4:69.
H:19.
18.
ibn All bin Hajar al-Asqllani, Rath
fi sharh Atha al-bukhari(lieintt: Dar
18. Ahwad
Hajaral·Asq.llani. l'I1lhal·b..,iji.r!;arhJahihlZ/·b"khari(Bcirut:
al-marifah,
n.d.)ibn
vol.Ali6,bin
p. 28.
~1.marif.Jh.
n.d.)
vol. 6. p. 28.
19. Ibid.,
p. 28.
19, Ibid.
lhid., p. 2B.
20.
20. Khalid,
Ibid. al-Shahid fi al-Islam,
21.
21. Ibn
K1,.Jid,
aI-ShaM" ji ul·l;/am, p.
p. 57.
n Scc
Sec also
also pp.
pp. 55-57.
~ ~-57.
22.
Hajar,
Fath al-hari fi tharh sahib al-bukhan; p.
22. Scc
Jbn Khalid,
Haiar. Fath a/.hari ft Jharh 1i1I;ih q(·bllkhari, p. IL
11.
23.
al-Shahitlfi al-Is/am, pp. 69-72.
23. See
Sec:Quran
Khalid.
aI·Shahidfi al·1JIam. pp. 69-72.
24,
49:9.
24. See
See Khalid,
Qutan 49:9.
25.
ft al-Islam,
25. Ibid.
Sec KhaIid. al·ShalJj" ji a/-klam, p.p. 70.
70.
26.
26.
[bid.
27. Quran 3:169.
27. Qu ... n 3:169.
28.
See Imad al-Din Abi al-Fida Ismail Bin Kathir, Eefrjr al-Quran gAAzim,
~B. Sr.e1389/1970),
[mad .1.Dinvol.
Abi al·Fid. Ism.iI Bin Kalhir.1iI[rir 1I/·QU1lJR llI.Azim.2d
2ded.
cd.(Beirut:
(Beirut:
Dar al-Fikr,
2, pp. 153-60.
Dac
a)·Pike.
13891197U). vol. 2,/>p. 1~3~60.
29. 1bn Hajar,
Each al-hari ft tharb tahih d-bukhan;
29.Ibid.
Ibn Haj.t. Nih aI·bari Ii JMr!; JtiTh;h aI,oIlAhan; p,p.31.
31.
30.
30.Khalid,
Ibid. al-Shahid fi aarlam,
31.
p. 138.
31.Akhtab
Khalid,al-Muvraffaq
fl/·Shahiti Iial-Khawarizmi,
a/.TJ/am, p. BU.
32.
Maqtal al-Husayn (Najaf: Mubammad
al-Samavvi,
32. t\kht~b
a1·MuwaJF..q
a1·Samawi,
1367/1947),
vol. 1,
p. 187. .1·K.hawarizmi. MdqIl1I aI·HUlayn (Naja!;Muhammad
136711947).
vol. al-Saduq
I. p. 187. lbn Babawayh
33. Abu Jafar
!korai
al-Din
33. Abu1389/1970),
Jaf.r .I..s.duq
Ibn Dabaw.yb aI·Qummi, Ihnal d·Dm(Najaf:
(Naja!:al-Mathaah
al·Marbaabal-aI·
Ilaydariyyah,
p. 62.
Uaydatiyy.h.
13B911970).
62.
34. Mahmoud
M. Ayoub,p. Redemptive
Suffering In Islam (The Hague: Mouton Publishers,
M. Ayoub. Retiempli.e Suffering In lilam (The Hague: Mournn Publishers.
1978),34.
pp.Mahmoud
205ff.
197B).
pp. 20sff.
35. [bid.,
p. 214.
35.Ibid.,
Ibid.,pp.p.144-45.
214.
36.
36.Ibid.,
Ibidp.
.• 217.
pp. 144-45.
37.
37. Ibid .• p. 217.
ACLURM002825
77
77
3B.38.Quran
Quran5:3.
5:3.
39.
39-QUl:l!!1
QuEaa9:111.
9:111.
40.
40.Quran
Quran85:4--B.
85:4-8.
41.
Is. Muhammad bin Iso bin Sawrah .1· Tirmidhi, SUM" al·T;rm;ahi, Abdul Rahman
41.Abu
Abu Isa Muhammad bin Isa bin Sawrah al-Tirmidbi, Sunan al-Tirraldbr;
vol. }, p. 318. Abdul Rahman
Muhammad Utlurum, 3d ed., (Beiru~ Dar aj·Fikr, 1398(1978)
Muhammad
1.1thinan, 3dfted.,
(Beirut.
al-Fikr, 1398/1978) vol. 3, p. 318.
42.
al·iI/am,
p. Dar
138.
42.Khalid,
Khalid,(ll-Shahiti
al-Shabia'fi al-Lrlata, p. 138.
43.
••e already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian lI"dilion,
43.[hhave
already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian tradition,
See
SuiferiTlg ;n l!llZm, pp. 199, 282 (n.7).
seeAyoub,
Ayoub,Redemptive
Redemptive Suffering in Mom, pp. 199, 282 (n.7).