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33 Martyrdom Martyrdom1fl in Christianity Christianity and and Islam Islam MAHMOUD MAHMOTJDM. M. AYOUB AYOUB n O ue of ne of me the most important marks of a person's person'sfaith faith or or commitment commitment to to V a religious a religiousideology ideology i.sis his his readiness readinesstotodefend defend that that faith faith with with life life itself itself if if necessary. necessary.Examples Examplesof ofsuch suchheroic heroicsacrifice sacrificeorormartyrdom martyrdomabound aboundinin born both heroic indifference indifference ancient ancient and contemporary society. society, In In ancient ancient times, times, the heroic such men men as asthe the Stoic Stoicphilosopher, philosopher,Epktetus, Epictetus,tototorrure tortureand anddeath death in in the the of such affirmation affirmation of aa noble noble ideal ideal earned earned them the honor of martyrs; martyrs; their example example passions and worldly worldly life and ideal of of total indifference to passions life provided provided aa model model for early early Christian Christian martyrs. martyrs. In In our our own own time, time, such such men men as Che Guaverra Guaverra and and his legendary comrade Tanya Tanya have have been been regarded regarded as as martyrs martyrs and and even saints by powerby some some Catholic Catholic leftist leftist priests. priests. Martyrdom Martyrdom has has been been one one of the most powerful instruments in the the establishment establishment and and propagation propagation of ofaa faith or or ideology, ideology, and hence hence of of aa new new social social order. In this this essay essay we we shall shall examine examine the the philosophy philosophyof ofmartyrdom martyrdomand and the role of martyrs in Christianity and Islam. We shall of shall first firstconsider considerthis thisphenomenon phenomenon each of of the the two two traditions traditions separately, separately. and and then thenbriefly briefly discuss discuss similarities in each towards the the two tWO comcomand differences differences of concept and concept and and attitude towards the marcyr martyr in the Our aim aim isis essentially essentially to appreciate appreciate the the contribution which which this this munities. Our has made made totothe thereligio-political religio-political situation situation of oftoday's today's world. world. phenomenon has phenomenon The term term martyr as used in the the New New Testament Tesramcm means "witness." "witness," A A martyr is a witness witness not bur to to an an event, event, to to the the faith faith in in the rhecrucified crucified and and is not to to an idea but risen Christ. Thus the the author author of of1I John writes, writes, "".... thatwhich whichwe we have have seen seen risen .. that eyes, which we with our our eyes, with we have havelooked lookedupon uponand and [Duched touched wirh with our our hands. hands . ., .. we proclaim also to you. "1 The The first first Christian martyr, Stephen, Stephen, isis reported reported we you. .., .. ."1 ro have have seen the heavens heavens open and the Son Son of God se"olted right hand hand to seated on the right of ofGod.2 God. 2 Neither Neitherininthe theOld Oldnor northe theNew NewTestament, Testament,however, however,do dowe wesee seeany any significant development development of ofthe the concept concept beyond beyond an an almost almost juridical juridical meaning meaning significant of ofwitness. witnen. In Inbiblical biblicaland andpost-biblical post-biblicalJudaism, Judaism.martyrdom martyrdomwas was considered considered to to be be an an individualwork work of ofpiety pietyand andtesissance resistance totoevil. evil. The Thecases cases of of the the woman woman and and individual her seven seven sons sons in in IV IV Maccabees Maccabees (8:3ff) three young young men men in inDaniel Daniel her (8;3ff) and the three (ch. 3)3)have havesurvived survivedas as powerful powerful symbols symbols in the the liturgy Iirurgy and andhagiography hagiography of of (ch. 67 67 ACLURM002820 68 68 MAHMOUDM. M.AYOUB AYOUB MAHMOUD ENABLING ENABLINGFACTORS FACTORSFOR FOR CHANG!! CHANGE theChurch. Church.The The aim aim of of martyrdom martyrdom in inJudaism Judaism wa.1 was essentially essentiallytotoperfect perfectthe the the victimand andedify edifythe thepeople. people. Since Sincemartyrdom, martyrdom, as asaareEgious religiousand andmoral moralconconvictim cept, call can best best develop develop widlin within an an eschatological framework,itit is is significant significant eschatological framework, cept, that in in Judaism Judaism this this concept concept appears appears only only in in late and apocryphal that late Biblical Biblical and apocryphal writingsin in an an eschatological eschatologicalcontext. context.The Theearly earlyChurch Church fell fellheir heir to to both both JewJewwritings ish escharology eschatologyand and irs its moral moral implications. implications. ish In Acts Acts22:20, 22:20,St. St. Paul Paul acknowledges acknowledgeshis hisrole roleininthe the manyrdom martyrdom of of early early In Christians, "when "when the the blood blood of servant Stephen Stephen was shed."3 The The book book Christians, of Thy Thy servant was shed."3 of Revelation, Revelation,the the apocalypse apocalypseof ofthe the early earlyChurch, Church, presents presents aa vivid vivid image image of of of the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with the blood . . . of the martyrs." the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with (he blood ... of the martyrs."44 During the the apostolic apostolic age. age, the the concept concept of ofmartyrdom martyrdom took took on onnew newmeaning meaning During as the the number number of increased and and their their memory on. Yet the two two as of martyrs martyrs increased memory lived lived on. Yet the elements of of witnessing witnessing to to one's one'sfaith faithand and stoic stoicindifference indifferencetotopain pain continued continued elements to dominate dominate the the thinking Church. Thus Thus we we read read in in II Clement thinking of of the the early early Church. Clement to 5:4-7 (written 96): about A.D. A.D. 96): 5:4-7 (written about Peter, who who because because of of unrighte.ous unrightenus jealowy jealousysuff.m:d sufferednot notone one or or ~o two but but many many Peter, trials, and and having went to to the trials, having thus thus given given his his testimony testimony went the glotious glotious place place which which was his due. due. Through Through jealousy and suife strife Paul Paul showed showed the the way way co to the the prize prize of was hi5 jealousy and of endurance; he was in bonds, stoned, he 5cven times times he was in bonds, he he was was exiled, exiled, he he was was stoned, he was was endurance; seven aa herald herald both Doth in in the rhe East East and and in in the the West, West, he he gained gained the the noble noble: fame fame of of his his faith, all the world, and and when f.irh, he he taught taught righteousness righteousness to to all the world, when he he had had reached teached the the limits his testimony testimony before before the the rulers, rulers, and and thus West he he gave gave his rhus passed passed from from limits of of the the West the the world world and and was wa> taken ~akcn up up into into the theHoly HolyPlace—the Pla{e-~he greatest greatest example example of of endurance.' endurance.' . One One of ofthe theearliest earliest and and most most eager eager martyrs martyrs of ofthe theChurch Churchwas was Ignatius, Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, Antioch, who who died died in in A.D. A.D. 108, 108. For Foc Ignatius, Ignatius, the the martyr manyrwas was "he "he Bishop of who 6 He who imitated imiratedChrist ChristininHis Hissufferings." sufferings."6 He therefore therefore used used the the term term disciple disciple rather fully theological, theological, and and he rather than than witness. wit71eH. His His view view was was fully he insisted insisted on on bodily bodily suffering suffering as as aa proof proof that that Christ, Christ, the the crucified crucified Son Son of of God, God. was was clothed clothed in in aa real body to to be real body. body. Ignatius Ignatius wished wished his his own own body be crushed crushed between berweell the the teeth teeth of of wild wild beasts, beasts, to to become become aaperfect perfect loaf loaffor for Christ, Christ, whose whose own own body body isis reprerepre· sented thebread breadand andwine wineofofthe theEucharist—regarded Eucharist-regardedby byIgnatius Ignatiusas as "the "the sentedininthe medicine medicine of ofimmortality."7 immortality."7 In Polycarp, bishop IIIthe theaccount accountofofthe themartyrdom martyrdomofofPolycarp. bishopof ofSmyrna, Smyrna, written written about A.b. 155, 155, witnessing wimessing faith faith to to the the humanity humanityand andsuffering sufferillgof ofthe theSon Son about A.D. of ofGod Godwas was fully fully developed developed as as aa concept." concept." In In the theLeonine leonine letters letters of ofabout abour A.D. 170 the term martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of A.o. 170 the tcrm martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of blood bloodfor forChrist. Christ.Here, Here,the theexample exampleofofStephen, Stephen,who whosaw saw(witnessed) (wimcssed)the thegloriglori· ACLURM002821 69 69 fied fiedChrist Christbefore beforehis hisdeath, death, was was used used as asaaproof proofcase. case.The Thelelters lettersvehemently vehemently protest confessors who endured protestthe theuse useof ofthe theepithet epithetmartYrI martyrsfor for confessors who enduredpersecution persecution but testimony with but did did not not seal seal their their testimony with their their blood." blood.9In In The TheShepherd Shepherdof ofHer· Hermas. manyrdom earns carns the martyr's salvation mas,this this imitator imitator of of Christ Christ through through martyrdom the martyr's salvation and glory of and aa share share in in the the glory of Christ. Christ. "Those "Those who whosuffered sufferedfor forthe thename nameof ofdIe die All their their sins sins have have been been taken takenaway."11 away."" The Son Son of of God God are are glorious. glorious. All The mar.tyrs martyrs are are also alsopictured pictured as assitting sitting Oil on thrones thrones with with CroWIIS crownson onthdr their h~ads, heads,with with Christ Christ world." Such Such glory glory belongs belongs only to those those who who have have engaged engagedin in judging judging the the worlds' only to suffered crucifixion, and sufferedstripes, stripes,imprisonment. imprisonment, crucifixion, and wild wild beasts beasts for for Chrisr's Christ's name, name, insists insiststhe the author author of of The The Shepherd. Shepherd A A rich richand and elaborate elaborate cultus cultus evolved evolved out out of of this this great great regard regard for for martyrdom martyrdom alld the veneration veneration accorded accorded martyrs. martyrs. We and the We can can discuss discussonly only rhe the beginnings beginnings of of this this cultus, cultus, and and some some of of its its salient salient reatutes. features. Apparently, Apparently, tlle the authorities authorities rcsponresponsible execution by of Polycarp Polycarp sought Chrissible for for the the execution by burning burning of sought to to prevent prevent the the Chrisremains which, tians tians from from gathering gathering his his remains which, they they feared, feared, would would be be venerated venerated more more than Christ. The faithful protested protested this this accusation accusation vehemently, than Christ. The faithful vehemently, arguing arguing thar that the same same as as worworthe veneration accorded accorded to to martyrs matlyrs for fur their their sacrifice sacrifice is the veneration is not not the ship greatly ship which which belongs belongs to to God God alone. alone. The The classic classic difference difference here here stared stated and and greatly in the the Eastern Eastern Church Church is is between between honor honor or or veneration veneration and and worwor· elaborated in elaborated The parishioners parishioners of bishop did gather the the bones bones of of the the saint saint for for ship. The ship. of the the bishop did gather them "to "to be bemore more valuable valuable than than precious precious stones stones and and finer finer burial. considering considering them burial, than refined relined gold [They]laid laidthem theminina asuitable suitableplace. place. There There the theLord lord than gold..... . . [They] will permit us [they [they said] to gather gather together together in in joy joy and and gladness gladness and and to to will permit us said] ... . . . to celebrate the rhe day day of of his his martyrdom martyrdom as as aa birthday, birthday, in in memory memory of of those those atharhcelebrate "12 The "birrhday of the martyr" as nn :l[JIlUal letes who who have have gone before.... letes gone before. . . ."12 The "birthday of the martyr" as an annual memorial was W3S a Christian adaptation adaptation of ofpagan pagan custom custOm that thatplayed playedaacrucial crucial memorial a Christian in the the growth growth of of the the cult cult of of martyrs.* martyrs. 13 role in role Others among amongthe theearly earlyChurch Churchfathers fathersadvocated advocatedgreat greatveneration venerationfor for marmarOthers the treasures of rhe Church. Martyrdom was ryrs whom they considercd to be tyrs whom they considered to be the treasures of the Church. Martyrdom was considered to to be bc aa second second baptism, baptism, the the baptism baptism of of blood, blood, granting granting the the marmar· considered sinand andentry entryinto inroParadise. Paradise.Martyrs Martyrswho whowere were imim· tvr immediate immediateremission remissionofofsin tyr prisoned awaiting awaiting death, death, their their families, families, and and even eve~ the the towns towns in in which which they t~cy prisoned resided were wete held held in in high high honor. honor. Those Those who who remained remamcd steadfast steadfast through through imJmresided prisonment and and torture torture(although (althoughescaping e5capingdeath) death)gained gainedpositions positions among among prisonment theelite eliteofofsociety. society. This Thishonor honorgave gave them themthe theprivilege privilegeofofepiscopal episcopaloffice.14 ofncc. 14 the From an anearly early period, period,martyrs martyrswho whowere were imprisoned imprisonedwere wereasked asked to~opray pray From thepious. pious.ItItwas wasaanatural naturaldevelopdevelop· forthe thehealth, health,well-being, well· being,and andsalvation salvationofofthe for mentthat tharsuch suchrequests requestsfor forprayers prayers came came to to be berenewed renewed after afterthe themartyr's martyr's ment point no dou bt led to all even greater tensioll ,bedeath. This controversial death. This controversial point no doubt led to an even greater tension betweenworship worshipof ofthe thedead—a dead -acommon commonpractice pracriceininpre-Christian pre-Christianpagan pagansociety SOCIety tween -andthe theveneration venerationofofmartyrs. martyrs.The Thecult cuI of t ofmartyrs martyrswith withitsitsrelics reliesand andshrines shrines —and 70 70 MAHMOUDM. M. AYOUB AYOUB MAHMOIJD ENABLlNG fACTORS FOR CHANGE ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE became the the objca object of of scorn scorntotothe the Protestant Protestant Reformation; Reformation; as asaaresult resultthe the Camo. Cathobecame lic Church Church was wasforced forcedtotodefine defineits itstheology theologyof ofmarryrdom martyrdom again againand and again. again. lie In me the words of rhe the Council Council of of 'frent, Trent, which whichmet metin in pan part (0 to answer the criticritiIII words of answer the cismsof of the the Reformation: Reformation:"The "The holy holy bodies bodiesof of holy holymanyrs, martyrs,and and of of omers others cisms now living living with with Christ-which Christ—whichbodies bodieswere werethe theliving living members members of of Christ Christ now and the temple are by a~d temple of of the the Holy Holy Ghost Ghost (I(I Corinthians Corinthians 3:16), 3:16), and which which are by Him to be raised life, and to be to be venerated venerated HIm raiscd unto eternal eternaIlifC, ~ glorified—are glorified-arc w by the the faithful by God by faithful through which which bodies bodies many mwy benefits benefits are bestowed bestowed by I on men men.,3 on ' Christianity a rich rich cultus cultus arose arose around around the shrines and relics While in Christiaoicy relics of the martyrs, martyrs, in in Islam Islam this thisphenomenon phenomenon remained remained limited limited to Shi'i Islam, Islam, and and to Shi'j even there there took took aa different different form formand andmeaning, meaning, The The "friend "friend of of God" God" or sainr saint even in Islam, whose shrine shrine became became aa place place of pilgrimage pilgrimage fur for the the pious. pious, was was not Islam, whose required to to be a martyr. fact, the Prophet recommended required martyr. In fact, recommended that, whenever whenever possible, manyrs martyrsshould should be be buried buried at at the spot where where they they fell fell in in batcle. battle."'6 To To possible, my kn~wledge, knowledge, there there arc are no shrines in the Muslim world world except except those those of the m~ Shiah Imams imams 10 in Iraq Iraq and and Iran Iran;; specifically specificaUy erected Shlah erected as as memorials memorials for martyrs. martyrs. Yet even even here here the imam's far greater greater thm than simply Yet imam's role role is is far simply that of of martyr. martyr. The word The word shahid shahid ("witness"), ("witness"), with its irs derivatives, deIivatives, occurs OCcurs over fifty fifty times ofthese thesereferences, references, the the emphasis emphasis is on its its linguistic linguistic in the the Quran. Quean. In Inmost mostof meaning witness here here on on earth earth to to the oneness of God, God, the aposmea~ing and usage as witness tleship of of Muhammad, Muhammad, and and the the truth of the faith. are not not in a faith. Witnesses Witnesses are tleshIp category by themselves themselvesbut butare areclassed classedwith withdIe theprophets, prophets, the the righteous, righteous, and category by the that is, with God. rhe: truthful— truthful-mat is, with those who have have found favor favor with God.IT 17 The to us of concern concern to us is: is; Who Who is is a martyr? martyr? The The answer, answer, as as The first first question question of we shall see, see, isisin in the the end legally determined. A A man, man, we we ate are told, said to we shall legally determined. the booty. Another may rhe Prophet: Prophet: "A '''A man man may may fight in quest quest of ofboory.Anomer may fight fight for fame and still status. Who among these would be fur aa show show of status. be fighting still another another for in the fights in in order that the way way of God?" The Prophet Prophet answered, answered, "Whoever "Whoever fights the word God be uppermost, be lighting fighting in in the way of God."18 God."" uppermost, would would be way of word of God The famous traditionist, Ibn Ibn Hajar Rajar al-Asqalani, al-Asqalani, comments on this hadith hat/jth ("Tradition ("'Ihdition of the Prophet"): Prophet"): "One "Onemay mayfight fightfor fur one oneof offive five reasons: reaso~: booty; booty; aa show or a show others; in defense braveI)'; or show before before others; defense of of wealth, wealth, family, family, or or show of bravery; land; one of land; and and out Out of ofanger. anger. Any Anyone ofthese rhese could could in in itself itselfbe bepraiseworthy praiseworthy or or the as the the main main purpose purpose remains remains that that the the 'word 'word of of God God the opposite. opposite. So So long long as be it matbe uppermost' uppermost' (which (which isis here defined as as defending the the cause cause of of Islam), ir ters ters not not what whatother otherreasons reasonsmay mayexist existasassecondary secondal)'causes."t9 causes."" In yet another tradition, tradition, the the Prophet Prophetwas was asked asked whether a man man fighting fighting In yet for have aa reward reward with with God God on the fur material mllterial rewards rewards would also also have the day day of ofresurresurrection. "Nothing." He continued, "God rection. The Prophet answered, answered. "Nothing." "God would would not not ACLURM002822 71 71 accept seell: by by acceptaadeed deed unless unlessitit isis done done sincerely sincerelyfor forHim Himand and that that the doer seek mis this only only His His (God's) (God's) face."" face."20 At At least leastin in early earlyIslam, Islam,the theapplication applicationof of the the term term martyr martyr was wasnot not limited limited to to the person who who is is killed killed in in the way way of of God God on on the the battldidd. battlefield. Martyrdom Martyrdom isis an way of God. an act act of jihad jihad (striving) (striving) in in the way God. Jihad. Jihad, however, however,contraty contrary to to the West, is not simply simply militance: militance: more basic basic is is the common common view view held held in in the West, theji»adagainsc theevil evilininone's oo~'sown own soul soul and and in in society. society. It thefihadagainst the It isis this this inner inner pupurity rity resulting resulting from from the the Jihad jihad of the the soul soul that that creates creates the the right right intemion intention of of serving whatever way serving the the cause cause of of [ruth truth in whatever waypossible. possible.In Inaddition addition to to dying dying in in deferue life, therefore, cllerefore, the act of of falling off off one's defense of of one's one's faith, faith, property, property, or life, one's mount, dying dying of of snakebite, or drowning Likedrowning is is also also regarded regarded as as martyrdom. martyrdom. Likewise, from his house collapsing wise, he he who who dies dies from from a stray stray arrow arrow or or bullet, bullet, or from is considered considered a martyr. martyr. Even down down upon upon him, is Even those those who who die die of of the plague or a stomach are considered marstomach ailment, ailment, or a woman who who dies dies in in childbirth, childbirth, arc tyrs. Abbas, is is said said to to have have declared: declared: "A '~ man tyrs. The The famous famous tradiciomst, traditionist, Ibn Abbas, dies in his bis bed in in the theway way of ofGod, God,yet yethe heisisaamartyr?"11 martyr."" Nevertheless, Nevertheless, in spite.: spite of all all this, this, the true true martyr martyr is is he who who is is slain slain in the the way way of God. God. Early with Early traditionisrs traditionists may may have have used used the the term martyr very very broadly broadly and and with of a special because they feared the the rise rise of caution because special cult of martyrs. martyrs. 'Dms, Thus, in relaof Abu Hurayrah, Hurayrah, the the Prophet Prophet is is said to to have have dede· tionship to authoricy of tionship to the authority clared: "Whoever has faith God and andin inHis His apostle, apostle, observes observes regular regular prayers prayers faith in God fasts the month of Ramadan. shall be to make make and fasts Ramadan, it shall be incumbem incumbent upon God to him enter enter Paradise, Paradise, whether fights in the way way of whether he he fights of God God or remains remains in in the of his birth." birth:' Yet Yet when the the people people asked asked ififthey Lhey should should convey convey this glad land of didnot notanswer answer directly. directly. Instead, he he described described tiding to to others, others, the the Prophet Prophetdid ofthe themartyrs martyrsininParadise.s! Paradise. 12 Perhaps Perhaps for this tills reason reason itit was was high station station of the high the jurist rather than the the orator orator or or theologian theologian who derermined the principle principle determined the according to woman may may be considered considered to be be aa martyr. martyr. according to which which aa man or woman We cannot detail into into this thi~ technical tethnical topic topic of ofthe the qualifications qualifications We cannot enter in detail of aa martyr; martyr; aa few few general general remarks remarks must mustsuffice. suffice. Three Three categories categories of of martyrs martyrs of distinguished: martyr of of this this world, world, martyr of this and the the world world to to may be distinguished: come, and martyr martyr of of the the world world to to come come only. only. The The first first is is he he who who dies dies for for aa come, other than than that that of offaith. faith. The Thesecond secood isis he hewho who isis slain slain for for no no worldly cause other but that that "the "theword word of ofGod God be beuppermost." uppermost." Such Such aa martyr martyt is is to to other reason reason but other be buried buried in in his his clothes, without without washing washing or shrouding-ordinarily, necessary be shrouding — ordinarily, necessary rites for the dead. dead. The Themartyr martyrof ofthis thisworld worldisis likewise likewise buried buried in in his his clothes, clothes. rites since in the the end endhis hismotives motives are are known known only only to to God, God,who whowill will reward reward each ea(h since person according according- to a1-Khattab and and All Ali person to his his acts acts and and intentions. Umar Ibn al-Khattab Ibn Abi Abi Talib, the second and md fourth of of the the four four tightly rightly guided guidedcaliphs caliphs who who 1bn and died died later laterof oftheir theirwounds, wounds, were were given regular burial. While While were stabbed stabbed and were 72 man:stoma M. M. AYOUB lIIIU1MOUD AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE both were consideredmartyrs martyrsin inthe the way wayof ofGod, God, 5uch such burial burial indicates indicates that that hmh wen: considered they were werenor, not, technically technicallyspeaking, speaking,martyrs. martyrs.The Thethird thirdcaliph, caliph,Uthman, Uthman, who who they Z wasslain slainin in his his house, house, was wasalso alsonot notwashed washedor orshrouded. shrouded." ) was Finally, the the Quran Quran counsels to make Finally, counsels Muslims Muslims to make peace peace among among themselves. themselves. Yet if ifone onegroup grouptransgresses transgressesagainst against another,that thatgroup groupmust must be be fought fought un: unYct another, til it it rerurns returns to to the Thus, we weare aretold, told,after after the the battle battle of of NahraNahratil the right right path.24 path." Thus, wan against against the the Kharijites Kharijites(A.D. (Aro.659), 659),Ali Allhad hadthe the dead dead on on his his side side buried wan buned as martyrs. martyrs. This Thisprinciple principlehas hascontinued continued to to be be observed observed (and (and often often abused) abused) as to the to the present present day. day. As in in Christianity, the blood his or or As Chri5tianity. the blood of of the the martyr martyr in in Islam Islam washes washes away away his her sins. sins. It It is important to that even her is important to observe ob5erve that even though though women women are arc exempted exempted from actual actual fighting fighting for religious and and juristic juristic reasons, reasons, the the first first martyr martyr in in Islam from for religious Islam was aa womanwoman—Sumayya. Sumayya,the themother motherof of Ammar Ammar Ibn Ibn Yasir, who was wastortured tortured was Yasir, who to death death with with hcr her husband husband and and son by the Mcccan Arabs hefure before the the conquest conquest to Mcccan Arabs of the city. city.The Theinjunction injunction to to let let the the blood blood of of the the martyrs martyrs be be their their purification purification of the is said to to have have been been given given by by the the Propher Prophet regarding regarding those is said those slain slain in the battle battle them in in their their blood and do of of 'Mud." Uhud. 1 ' Ile He said: said: "Shroud "Shroud them blood and do not not wash wash them. them. on the For no man man who who is is injured injured in in the the way wayof ofGod Godbut but that that he Por no he shall shall come on the day of resurrection resurrection with with his his blood blood gushing gushing OUt out of day of his veins. veins. The color shall shall of his The color be be that that of of blood blood and and the the odor odor that that of of musk."26 musk.":!6 The martyrs —"those who who are ate slain slain in in the of God"-the God"— theQuran The martyrs-"those the way way of tells Quran tells us are not not to dead; rather, with their us " "are to be be reckoned reckoned as as dead; ratner, they they are are alive alive with their Lord Lord sussusmince" Islamic in the the language language and and rained."z1 Islamiceschatology e5clutologyhas hasalways always been been expressed expressed in the framework of of this this life. life. Hence, Hence, tradition tradition very displayed great the social social framework very early eady displayed great imagination of the in Paradise." imagination in in depicting depicring the the great great pleasures pleasures of the martyrs martyrs in Paradise.'· Yet Yer the rhe true tlUe martyr martyr for fur God God retains retains his his desire desire for for martyrdom martyrdom even even in in Paradise. Paradise. Malik Ibn Anas Anas related related that that tbe the Prophet Prophet said: Malik Ibn said: "No "No one one who who enters enters Paradise Paradise would wish to to rerum return [Q to this if he he were to possess all that that is would wish this world, world, even even if were to possess all is in in it, the martyr. He would would desire desire ro to return return to to the the world to be be killed ie, except excepr the manyr. He world to killed ten ten times of the the great great honor honor (with [with God] sees in in this this act."29 rimes because because of God) which which he he sees act,"29 "The "The door under the are told told in in another Paradise," we we are another tradition, tradition, "is "is under the glittering glittering door of of Paradise," swords:']· swools. '30 Tradition numerous examples examples of of marryrs martyrswho who sensed sensed the the odor odor of Tradition records records numerous of Paradise on the the battlefield battlefield and and thus thus gladly gladly met met their their death. death. One Paradisc on One such such examexample _latishwho whoprayed prayedon on the the morning morning ple is is that that of of aa man man called called Abdallah Abdallah Ibrt IbnJahsh of Uhud, saying: of the the battle battle of ofUhud. saying: "0 "0God, God. let letme metoday [Oday meet meetaastrong srrong and and brave brave knight kill me me and and cut my nose nose and and two ears. Thus Thus when when II shall knight who who will will kill cur off off my two ears. shall meet servant, fur for what. what were your nose nose and and meet you you tomorrow, tomorrow, you you will will say, say. 'My 'My servant, were your ears in You You [for [for your your sake], sake], my my Lord. Lord, and and cars cut cut off?' off?' II will will then then answer, answer. 'It ·It was was in 31 in in your your apostle.'" apostle ...•" Shiah have made made the the ethos ethos of martyrdom and Shiall Muslims Muslims have of martyrdom and suffering suffering aa basic basic ACLURM002823 73 principle faith and andpiety. piety. Every Every year lim ten days of principle of of their their faith year during during the the first ten days of MuMuharram first month ofthe the Muslim Muslim calendar), calendar). they they relive relive the the experience experience harram (the (the first month of of imam. who who through through his at Karbala Karbala propro· third imam, his death death at the third of Husayn Husayn Ibn Ibn Ali, Ali, the way of of God. God. supreme example example of ofself-sacrifice self-sacrifice in vided vided for for all all Muslims Muslims the the supreme in the the way In the tragedy tragedy of of Karbala ideal of new A.D. 680, 680, the the ideal of martyrdom martyrdom took took on on new In the Karbala in in A.D. theological pietisric significance. significance, Thus Prince of of Martyrs" Martyrs" "the Prince theological and and pietistic Thus Husayn, Husayn, "the said to to have have heen been and Youths of the People People of of Paradise," Paradise." was was said of the the Youths of the and "Master "Master of for this this sacrifice sacrifice from beginning of of creation, creation. History History was was read read destined destined for from the the beginning backward beyond and and forward furward to of the world. backwardfrom from him him to to Adam. Adam, and and beyond to the the end end of the world. DefOre Before him, him, history history was wasaalong longprelude prelude to to the the drama drama of of suffering suffering and and death death of and immediate immediate relatives relatives were were the cemral characters, characters. of which which he. he, his his friends. friends, and the central Mter is a period of intense period of intense hope hope in in the the anticipation anticipation of of the the return return After him. him, history history is of twelfth imam of the the Mahdi Mandi (his (his ninth ninth descendant descendant and and twelfth imam of of the the Shiah Shish ~omcnu community) ofHusayn for rhelf nity) to to avenge avenge the the death death of Husayn and and vindicate vindicate the the fairhful faithful for their actual actual and vicarious sharing the sufferings sufferings of M~ and vicarious sharing in in the of rheholy the holy family family of ofthe the Prophet Prophet Muhammad. himself was said ro to have: have been been rold told by by the Prophet ~n in Yet Husayn himself hammad. Yet "he has has an an exalted exalred station station with with God which which he cannot attain a dream that "he except mattyrdom."31 except through through mattyrdom."" The death of ofHusayn, Husayn, moreover, moreover. became became for for Shiah Shiah Muslims Muslims aa source source of The death of redemption and healing. healing. According According to to aa well-known well-known uadit~on, just before be~ore redemption and tradition, just his leaving with am leaving with you you(the [the Mushm Muslim commUulty) community] his death death the the Prophet Prophet said: said: "I am the two weights weights onto if you you hold hold fast, you shall shall never never go go astray: astray: the the fast, you the two onto which which if Book my family, family, the the people people of of my my household. household. They They shall shall never never Book of of God God and and my " This spring be separated they come the spring." spring."'3 This paradisiacal paradisiacal spring be separated until until they come to to me me at at the shall shall be be given given to to the the Prophet Prophet on on the the day day of of judgment judgment to to quench quench the the thirst thirst .of of the piau:; "on the day day of great thirst:' Both the the Quran Quran and and the the family famdy " Both of the the great thirst."34 the pious "on the of will judge and intercede intercede before before God his Prophet for those of Muhammad Muhammad will judge and God and and his Prophet for those and mistreated of the Muslims who honored the the two two weights weights or neglected and mistreared Of neglected of the Muslims who honored them. Husayn Husayo will will also also stand before God on the the day day of of resurrection rcsurrection as as aa headthem. stand before God on headless motend with his ti)r his followers." followers." For his murderers and intercede for less body body to to contend the daughter daughter of of Muhammad Muhammad and and mother mother of ofHusayn, Husayn, Shiah piety it is is Fatmah. Patmah, the who has has in this world world embodied embodied the the suffering suffering of of her her descendants descendants and and who who who in this l6 continues to rears of of anguish anguish even continues to shed shed tears even in in Paradise. Paradise." This ethos quick and and spectacuspectacu· This ethos of of suffering suffering stands stands in in sharp sharp contrast contrast to to the the quick lar success success of lar ofthe the early early generarions generations of of Muslims. Muslims. Yet Yetit it is isitself itself the the prod~c~ product of of that military military and and economic cconomic success, success, coming ~oes. ou~ of the the conviction con~lwon that coming as as i~ it does out of that political political justice justice must, in the the end, end.reflect reflect divine dIVIne justice. JustIce. God Go~ Himself, Himself. that must, in in Shah Shiahtheology, theology, isis bound boundonly onlyby by His Hisown own justice. justic.e, Hence, Hencc, Shiites Shiites repeat repeat in daily in their worship worship the the prayer. prayer: "0 "0God, God. we we desire deSlfe of o~ You you an an honorable ho~orable daily in their 5tate in in which which You You honor humlhate hypocrisy hypoCflsy and state honor Islam Islam and and irs its people, people, and and humiliate and its people. people. [We [We pray) in itir you you render render us us among among those those who who call call [others] lothers) its pray] that that in 74 MAHMOUD AYOUB NAHMOUD M. M. AYOUB BNABUNG FACTORS FOR FOR CHANGE CHANGE ENABLING FACTORS [Q you, and that thatyou youmake makeus usleaders leaders to toyour yourway." way." This ideal to obedience to you, order will will come come only onlywhen when human human justice will will approx.imate approximate divine jUlit!ce justice most most closely. which closely, whichcan canonly onlybe beachil:ved achieveduuder underthe the leadership leadership of of an an imam imam proby God tected by God from from error. error. In In this this hope-or hope—or rather. rather, humanly unrealized goal -polirical — politicalidealism idealismand and theology theology meet. noteworthy thar Shiites, more Suoni majority majority of ofMuslims, Muslims, It is noteworthy that Shiites, more than the Sunni have risked have. moreover, moreover, mainhave tisked life life and and Muslim Muslim uniry unity in in this quest. They have, tuined a long long and and recognizable recognizable list of martyrs. tained martyrs. The The list begins begins with with Abel Abel (QabiI) (Qabil) and includes the Prophet Muhammad and all the imams but one. The twelfth to close close this rhis long long chapter chaprer of of wrongwrongimam. the Hidden Hidden Imam, Imam. will will return return to imam, martyrdom, and establish establish justice doing and martyrdom, justice in in the the earth. Thus the Prophet is said [Q have declared: lone is to have declared: "Even "Evenifif there there remains remains [only [only] one day day of the life of world. God will man of of my progeny shall appear, the world, will prolong thar that day llntil until aa man whose name whose agnomen is my shall fill fill whose name is is my my name name and whose my agnomen. agnomen. He shall die earth with equity and justice as the as it has has been filled filled with with inequity inequity and injustice."" variations, is justice."” This This rradition, tradition, with minor variations, is accepted accepted by by both Shiah Sunni traclitionists, traditiollists. Thus Thus the the ideal idealititexpresses expresses has has gained gained official official accepand Sunni tance Muslims of groups. tance among Muslims of both groups. This ideal of great great justice was wasrealized realizedfor foraabrief brieftime time only only by bythe the Prophet, Prophet, Muhammad, in Medina. realization of the ideal of Muhammad, Medina. The The Quran refers refers to to the realization a good society societyin in aastatement statement coming coming shortly shortly before beforethe the Prophec's Prophet's death death and instituted: "Today "Today have I perfected after all the obligations of Islam Islam had been instituted: your religion have completed my my favor towards have acacyour religion for for you; you; I have towards you you and have cepted Islam Islam as as a religion for you."38 yoU."38 Martyrs cepted Martyrsthroughout throughout Islamic history have been an affirmation affirmation of this hope, and aa recognition recognition that this this hope remains remains folly. Hence, Hence. the the challenge challenge remains remains ideal unfulfilled unfulfilled because because of human folly. an ideal as powerful as powerfultoday todayininIran. Iran,Afghanistan, Afghanistan, the the Arabian Arabian peninsula., peninsula, and even here was when was first the New New World as it was in the when it was first uttered. their lives lives and wealth "Surely God God has has exchanged exchanged with with the people of faith their they shall have Paradise: so that they Paradise: they they fight fight in in the the way way{)f of God, God, they they kill kill and are killed.., . ."39 are killed. :'39 This verse versecontinues, continues, "It "Jrisisaapromise promiseincumbent incumbentupon upon Him Him truth. in in the the Torah Torah and the Gospel." Gospel." Thus Islam Islam has in truth, has from from the the beginning major scriptures revealed recognized dle the place and value of of martyrdom martyrdom in the major befure an earlier revealed before before it. it. In art earlier surah surah of of the the Quean, Quran, revealed before the the principle of jihad was was established establishedfor forthe theMuslim Muslimcommunity, community,the theQuran Quran alludes alludes to to the 40 who became the subject of of much exeexe· famous Christian Christian martyIS martyrs of ofNajran Najtano getical getical and hadith scholarship. scholarship. It It isis therefore thereforeimportant important to to ask, ask, in in conclusion, condusion, towatd marabout the the similarities similarities and differences differences in about in the the view view of ofand and attitude attitude toward two religious religious traditions. [[aditions. tyrs in the the two tyrs Perhaps the most obvious differeuce is obvious and and important important historical difference is that that while ACLURM002824 75 in Christianity martyrdom martyrdom was was a glorious glorious struggle struggle before before Christendom Christendom became a world Islam the Jihad mar· world power powerunder under Constantine. Constantine, in Islam jihad or struggle struggle of the marreligious. social. tyrs tyrs was wasinstituted instituted after Islam became a religious, social, and and political order. Thus, when the symbol of cross, became of supreme supreme martyrdom, the cross, became the the banner banner under which political wars were were waged. waged, the the significance significanceof of me the principle principle alto· altogether became subjecr subject to to question and doubt. The most intense protest against this seen in the radical radical Reformation Reformation arul rich and this "distonion" "distortion" may may be be seen and the the rich and Anabaptists Anabaptists have have left as their legmoving martyrologies martyrologies that that Mennonites and acy was therefore he "who sufacy for for posterity. posterity.The The ideal ideal martyr in Christianity was fered stripes, crucifixion and wild beasts ... Is it because because of stripes, imprisonment, imprisonment, crucifixion . . ."" Is this thar even even among among committed committed this loss loss of of the the original original meaning meaning of rhis this ideal that is no ems it was for fundamentalist Christians martyrdom is fundamentalist Christians no longer longer the the imp impetus for the early early Church? In Islam, Islam, the ideal ideal martyr marEyr is is he he who who strives strives in way of God "with his in the way haud., tongue. and and. with with his his heart." heart." Yet Yet striving only hand, with his tongue, only with with the heart hcatt is considered weakest of faith."41 on outward strugconsidered to to be "the weakest faith."41 This emphasis 011 gle does wild and and uncontrolled uncontrolledwarfare, warfare. however; however; rather, advo· does not imply wild rather, itit advoagainst evil. evil. (At (At any any rate, such such cates cates aa regulated regulated struggle for for the good and against is definite is enjoined enjoined in in the the Quran Quran and hadith rtadition.) tradition.) This struggle has definite priorities affii~tion befalls priorities of concern; concern: "If affliction befalls you," you," advised advised Abdallah Abdallah Ibn lbn Jun-' Jun-dub, the meson sonof ofaa well-known well-known Companion, Companion."ransom "ransomyour yoursouls souls by by your wealth. But if if affliction alHiction increases, increases, put your souls put your souls before before your yourfaith. faith. for Pot aa truly truly deprived man is he whose religion is taken away away from from him. him. This is is because because there is no poverty after Paradise, Paradise,nor norisis there there any anywealth wealthafter afterthe the Pire Fire.", is poverty after ...·' In spite of this lm portantdifference, difference, however, however. both important both Islam Islam and and Christianity agree basic concept agree on on the basic concept of martyrdom martyrdom as as witness witnesstotothe the truth. truth. The true martyr, tWo religions also agree, agree, is he any ocher martyr, the two he who is is free free from any other motive but that witness. wimess. While While the the ideal ideal martyr martyr in in Islam Islam is the one who falls falls on but that on the battlefield, absolure requirement requirement for fur martyrdom. martyrdom. battlefield, actual actual fighting fighting is is not an absolute Islam, Islam, moreover,.has moreover, hasits its marqrs martyrs who whosilently silentlyand and bravely bravelyendure endure tortu[e torture and death. Finally, Finally, both uaditiol15 exalted station traditions are in agreement regarding the exalted of the martyr with God and the the belief beliefthat thar the themartyr martyrwill will carry carry the marks marks of his sacrifice displayed even even in heaven.45 heaven. ~~ sacrificewith withhim him to to be displayed In more recent Christian developments, developments. the the two two ideals ideals may may yet yet have more thanever ever before, before. Liberation Liberation theology— theology- the product product of ofpoverty, poverty, in common than piety, awateness-may yet piety, and political awareness—may yetprove provetotobe bethe themost mostimportant important phenomenon in in modern modernChristian Christianhistory. history. As A:; a Muslim, I believe that piety withOUt invulvemem is at best all theory and no practice. It shall be those out political involvement naked, care care for sick, and defend the who hungry, clothe who feed feed the the hungry, clothe the naked, for the the sick, and defend wronged in kingdom of God. God. wronged in prison prison who who will will inherit inherit the kingdom 76 76 MAHMUUD M. AYOUB MAHMUUD M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTOIlS POl! CHIINGB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE Notes Notes 1. 1 John 1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Revised Standard Version.) t.2.I John 1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Re.ised Stand:ml Version.) Acts 7:55-56. 2.3.Acts 7:5S--%. Sec also Acts 1:8, Luke 21:13, John 15:27, and Matt. 10:28, where the term martyr is also Actsof1:8. Luke 21:I3.John 15:27. and Matt. 10:28, whete the term ma'lyr is also used3.inSee thealso sense witness. usr:d in4.the sense wjtnC!i5. Rev. 17:6.ofSee also Rev. 6:9-11, 20:4. • 4.5.ReCyril •. 17;6. See also Rev. U:9-I1. 20:4. C. Richardson as al, cds., Early ChristianFathers. Fathers,The TheLibrary LibraryofChristiao of ChristianClassiC. Classics S. Cyril C. Riehatdoon e, aI .• cds .• EoT/y Ch,iJlian (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1953), vol. 1, p. 46. (Philadelphia: The Westminster Pc.... 19B). vol. I. p. 46. 6. See Rom. 6:3, and the entire epistle that revolves around this concept. 6.7.Se. SeeRom. Eph. 6:3. 20:2,and the eotire epistle that revolves around this concept 7.8.Se. 20:2. SeeEph. Richardson, Early Chrinian Fathers, pp. 149ff. B.9. Se. Edrly Chrislia11 Rtlhe,... pp. 149tf. NewRichardson, Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol.11. 11.1967. 1967,p.p. 312. 312. 9. New Co2tI",I;" EI1"yelopaedi", vol. 10. Ibid. 10. Ihid. 11. Ibid. II. 12.Ibid. Richardson, Early Christian Fathers, p. 156. 12. Ea'/, ChTiJtio2n liztherJ. p. 156. 13. Rich.rdson. On the development of the cult of the martyrs and its relationships ro to Gracco·RomlUl Graeco-Roman 13. On the of [he of [be manYQ and irs rclatiomhips antecedents, seedevelopment James Hastings, ed.,cult Encyclopaediaa/Religion of Religionana and EtM Ethics (New Yack: York:Chari., Charles ameteden". see James .• Encyclapuaw .. (New Scribner's Sons, n.d.), Ha"ings. vol. 9, pp.cd 52ff„ Scribner's Sons.p.n.d.). 14. Ibid., 53. vol. 9. pp. )llf.. 14. Ibid .• p. p. 51. '3. 15. Ibid., 15. Ibid., />.Khalid, 51. al-Shabidfi 16. Hasan (Beirut: Dar al-11m 61-malayin, 1971), p. 75. 16. Sec Hasan Kh.lid. 17. Quran 4:69,a/·Shahid 57:19. ji 111·1Jlam. (Beirut: Dar aI·lim liI.malayin. 1971). p. n. 17. Ahmad Soc QUCln 4:69. H:19. 18. ibn All bin Hajar al-Asqllani, Rath fi sharh Atha al-bukhari(lieintt: Dar 18. Ahwad Hajaral·Asq.llani. l'I1lhal·b..,iji.r!;arhJahihlZ/·b"khari(Bcirut: al-marifah, n.d.)ibn vol.Ali6,bin p. 28. ~1.marif.Jh. n.d.) vol. 6. p. 28. 19. Ibid., p. 28. 19, Ibid. lhid., p. 2B. 20. 20. Khalid, Ibid. al-Shahid fi al-Islam, 21. 21. Ibn K1,.Jid, aI-ShaM" ji ul·l;/am, p. p. 57. n Scc Sec also also pp. pp. 55-57. ~ ~-57. 22. Hajar, Fath al-hari fi tharh sahib al-bukhan; p. 22. Scc Jbn Khalid, Haiar. Fath a/.hari ft Jharh 1i1I;ih q(·bllkhari, p. IL 11. 23. al-Shahitlfi al-Is/am, pp. 69-72. 23. See Sec:Quran Khalid. aI·Shahidfi al·1JIam. pp. 69-72. 24, 49:9. 24. See See Khalid, Qutan 49:9. 25. ft al-Islam, 25. Ibid. Sec KhaIid. al·ShalJj" ji a/-klam, p.p. 70. 70. 26. 26. [bid. 27. Quran 3:169. 27. Qu ... n 3:169. 28. See Imad al-Din Abi al-Fida Ismail Bin Kathir, Eefrjr al-Quran gAAzim, ~B. Sr.e1389/1970), [mad .1.Dinvol. Abi al·Fid. Ism.iI Bin Kalhir.1iI[rir 1I/·QU1lJR llI.Azim.2d 2ded. cd.(Beirut: (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 2, pp. 153-60. Dac a)·Pike. 13891197U). vol. 2,/>p. 1~3~60. 29. 1bn Hajar, Each al-hari ft tharb tahih d-bukhan; 29.Ibid. Ibn Haj.t. Nih aI·bari Ii JMr!; JtiTh;h aI,oIlAhan; p,p.31. 31. 30. 30.Khalid, Ibid. al-Shahid fi aarlam, 31. p. 138. 31.Akhtab Khalid,al-Muvraffaq fl/·Shahiti Iial-Khawarizmi, a/.TJ/am, p. BU. 32. Maqtal al-Husayn (Najaf: Mubammad al-Samavvi, 32. t\kht~b a1·MuwaJF..q a1·Samawi, 1367/1947), vol. 1, p. 187. .1·K.hawarizmi. MdqIl1I aI·HUlayn (Naja!;Muhammad 136711947). vol. al-Saduq I. p. 187. lbn Babawayh 33. Abu Jafar !korai al-Din 33. Abu1389/1970), Jaf.r .I..s.duq Ibn Dabaw.yb aI·Qummi, Ihnal d·Dm(Najaf: (Naja!:al-Mathaah al·Marbaabal-aI· Ilaydariyyah, p. 62. Uaydatiyy.h. 13B911970). 62. 34. Mahmoud M. Ayoub,p. Redemptive Suffering In Islam (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, M. Ayoub. Retiempli.e Suffering In lilam (The Hague: Mournn Publishers. 1978),34. pp.Mahmoud 205ff. 197B). pp. 20sff. 35. [bid., p. 214. 35.Ibid., Ibid.,pp.p.144-45. 214. 36. 36.Ibid., Ibidp. .• 217. pp. 144-45. 37. 37. Ibid .• p. 217. ACLURM002825 77 77 3B.38.Quran Quran5:3. 5:3. 39. 39-QUl:l!!1 QuEaa9:111. 9:111. 40. 40.Quran Quran85:4--B. 85:4-8. 41. Is. Muhammad bin Iso bin Sawrah .1· Tirmidhi, SUM" al·T;rm;ahi, Abdul Rahman 41.Abu Abu Isa Muhammad bin Isa bin Sawrah al-Tirmidbi, Sunan al-Tirraldbr; vol. }, p. 318. Abdul Rahman Muhammad Utlurum, 3d ed., (Beiru~ Dar aj·Fikr, 1398(1978) Muhammad 1.1thinan, 3dfted., (Beirut. al-Fikr, 1398/1978) vol. 3, p. 318. 42. al·iI/am, p. Dar 138. 42.Khalid, Khalid,(ll-Shahiti al-Shabia'fi al-Lrlata, p. 138. 43. ••e already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian lI"dilion, 43.[hhave already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian tradition, See SuiferiTlg ;n l!llZm, pp. 199, 282 (n.7). seeAyoub, Ayoub,Redemptive Redemptive Suffering in Mom, pp. 199, 282 (n.7).