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CHAPTER
World War I
Many Americans
were outraged
when they learned
that Germany had
sunk the Lusitania.
YORK
COLLECTION, NEW
THE GRANGER
UNITED STATES
1914
This 1917 U.S. Army
Air Service recruiting poster asks
Americans to join the fight in Europe.
1915 A German submarine sinks
the British passenger liner
Lusitania, killing some 1,200
people, including 128 Americans.
1916 Woodrow Wilson
is re-elected president
in November.
1915
1916
THE GRA
NGER CO
LLECTIO
N, NEW
YORK
(1914–1919)
1916 Tanks are used in war
for the first time at the
Battle of the Somme.
1914 A Serb nationalist assassinates Austrian
Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28.
World War I begins after Austria-Hungary
declares war on Serbia on July 28.
WORLD
Tanks were first
used in World War I.
Soldiers used gas masks
to protect themselves
from poison gas.
Build on What You Know
fter victory in the SpanishAmerican War, the United
States stood ready to take a greater
role in international affairs. When
World War I began in Europe,
however, many Americans opposed
getting involved. Eventually, the
United States joined the Allied
Powers in the war and contributed
to their victory in Europe.
A
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Chapter 22
THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK
American propaganda,
such as this poster from
the United States Shipping
Board, helped encourage
support for the war.
Woodrow Wilson
1917 On March 1, U.S. newspapers
publish the Zimmermann Note,
which helps draw the United States
into World War I.
The U.S. Congress declares war on
Germany on April 6.
1918 President
Wilson announces
the Fourteen Points
to negotiate peace
after World War I.
1919 In March the
U.S. Senate rejects the
Treaty of Versailles,
the peace treaty
resolving World War I.
1917
1918
1919
1917 The Bolshevik Revolution
sweeps Russia creating a
communist government.
1918 In July the Allied Powers stop
Germany’s last major offensive.
Germany agrees to an armistice on
November 11, ending World War I.
1919 Leaders of the
Allied and Central
Powers sign the
Treaty of Versailles.
This poster shows
the flags of many
of the Allied
Powers.
You Be the Historian
If you were there . . .
Would you support
U.S. involvement in
World War I?
What’s Your Opinion? Do you agree
or disagree with the following statements?
Support your point of view in your journal.
•
•
•
Citizenship To be successful in a war
effort, a government must gain support
from its citizens.
Global Relations International
alliances always cause conflicts.
Science, Technology & Society
Advances in weaponry make wars
shorter.
667
The Road to War
Read to Discover
Define
1. What were the main causes of World War I?
2. How did most of Europe become involved in the war?
3. Where did the early fighting in the war take place, and
what were the results?
• nationalism
Reading Strategy
Identify
KEY-TERM FOLD Create the “Key-Term Fold” described in the
Appendix. Write a key term from the section on each tab of the
key-term fold. Under each tab, write the definition of the key term.
• militarism
• balance of power
• mobilize
• Triple Alliance
• Triple Entente
• Franz Ferdinand
• Nicholas II
• Central Powers
• Allied Powers
• Wilhelm II
• First Battle of the Marne
The Story Continues
n the early 1900s Europe seemed to be at peace. There had
not been a major war in the region since 1871. Yet political
tensions were building, and most nations continued to
strengthen their armed forces. In 1888 German chancellor
Otto von Bismarck had introduced a bill to the German parliament that added 750,000 soldiers to the German army. In
his address he declared, “We no longer ask for love, either
from France or Russia. We run after nobody. We Germans fear
God and nothing else on earth!” Before long, such aggressive
attitudes would lead to war on the European continent.
I
World War I artillery
Causes of War
During the 1800s Europe had been swept by a rise in nationalism—the
belief that a specific nation, language, or culture is superior to all others.
Nationalism led a number of German states to join together in 1871 to
form the German Empire. In contrast, nationalism tended to divide the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, also called Austria-Hungary. This empire
included people of many nationalities and language groups. One of
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Chapter 22
these groups, the Slavs, wanted to create a nation of their
own. Serbia was already an independent Slavic state on the
Balkan Peninsula. The Serbs encouraged Slavs in AustriaHungary to break free and join them in creating an
independent, united Slavic empire in the Balkans. Russia,
which was itself largely Slavic, supported Serbia’s goal.
Austro-Hungarian leaders saw the Slavic independence
movement as a threat to the unity of the empire. One
Austrian official predicted that Slavic nationalism was “one
of the powerful national movements which can neither be
ignored nor kept down.” The growing tensions in the
Balkans made them seem a likely place for a major
European war to erupt.
Imperialism also led to greater tensions as countries
competed to build overseas empires. By the late 1800s
Great Britain was the world’s greatest imperial power.
France, Germany, Italy, and Russia were building their
own empires. These countries also struggled over territory in Europe. France, for example, wanted to take back
Alsace-Lorraine (al-SAS-law-RAYN), a border region that
it had lost in a war with Germany in 1871.
As relations grew more uncertain, countries began building up their
armed forces to prepare for war. This policy, along with the strong
influence of military values on a society, is known as militarism.
European nations built larger militaries than ever before. Germany created
the most powerful army in Europe and a navy to rival that of Britain.
In the late 1800s European countries began to form alliances. They
did so to try to create a balance of power—a situation in which the
strength of rival alliances is nearly equal. Most European leaders believed
that no country would start a war if it lacked a real advantage in military
strength. In 1879 Germany allied with Austria-Hungary. Three years
later, Italy joined the union, making it the Triple Alliance. As allies,
Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy pledged to support one another in
case of attack.
Worried by Germany’s growing power, France formed a military
alliance with Russia in 1892. Britain feared Germany’s growing naval force
and signed an entente, or understanding, with France. In 1907 Russia and
Britain reached a similar agreement. The so-called Triple Entente thus
united Britain, France, and Russia.
The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente created an unsteady and
complicated balance of power in Europe. Many people, like German
general Helmuth von Moltke, felt that “a European war is bound to come
sooner or later.”
Interpreting Political Cartoons
The boiling point This 1912
British cartoon shows European
leaders trying to keep a lid on
trouble in the Balkans. What
does this cartoon suggest about
international cooperation?
✔ Reading Check:
Summarizing What factors increased military and
political tensions in Europe?
World War I
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THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK
The Spark
Felix Schwarmstadt’s painting
captures the 1914 assassination
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
and his wife, Sophie.
In the Balkan Peninsula, relations between Austria-Hungary and
Slavic nationalists grew increasingly hostile. People began referring
to the Balkans as a “powder keg” that might explode at any
moment. In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the independent
province of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This annexation angered
Slavic nationalists who wanted the region allied with Serbia.
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited
Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with his wife,
Sophie. The archduke was the heir to the throne of AustriaHungary. As the visitors rode through the streets, Gavrilo Princip,
a 19-year-old Serb nationalist stepped out from the crowd. He
quickly shot the archduke and his wife, killing them both. The
archduke’s assassination lit the fuse on the “powder keg” of Europe.
The president of France gave the following advice to an
Austro-Hungarian official.
History
Makers
Speak
“With a little good will, this Serbian business is easy to
settle. But it can just as easily become acute [severe]. Serbia has some very warm friends in the Russian people.
And Russia has an ally, France.
”
—President Raymond Poincaré, quoted in America Enters the World, by Page Smith
Austro-Hungarian leaders ignored his advice. On July 28, 1914, AustriaHungary declared war on Serbia. The next day, Austria-Hungary began
shelling the Serbian city of Belgrade. An earlier promise of support
required Russia to defend Serbia. At first, however, Russian czar
Nicholas II hesitated to mobilize, or prepare his military for war. His
foreign minister described the czar’s hesitation.
Analyzing Primary Sources
Identifying Points of View
What do you think Czar
Nicholas II’s biggest concern
is about defending Serbia?
History
Makers
Speak
“The Tsar was silent. Then he said to me, in a voice full of
deep feeling: ‘This would mean sending hundreds of thousands of Russian people to their death. How can one help
hesitating to take such a step?’
”
—Serge Sayonov, quoted in Imperial Russia, edited by Basil Dmytryshyn
The czar eventually decided to come to Serbia’s defense. Russia’s
mobilization led other countries to fulfill their own alliance promises.
In support of Austria-Hungary, Germany declared war on Russia on
August 1, and on France, Russia’s ally, two days later. German troops
invaded Belgium on August 3 to move westward to attack France.
Britain, which had pledged to defend Belgian neutrality, then declared
war on Germany. On August 5 Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.
The Great War—which later generations would know as World War I—
had begun.
✔ Reading Check:
Analyzing Information Why did many European
nations get involved in the conflict?
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Chapter 22
Europe Goes to War
The alliance of Austria-Hungary and Germany became known as the
Central Powers. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire later joined the
Central Powers. Britain, France, and Russia fought together as the Allied
Powers, or the Allies. Although previously allied with Austria-Hungary
and Germany, Italy joined the Allies in 1915. Eventually, 30 nations
would fight in World War I.
Many Europeans expected the war to last no more than six months.
Kaiser Wilhelm II was sure Germany would achieve a fast victory.
Germany hoped to quickly defeat France before Russia had a chance to
fully mobilize its army. The Schlieffen Plan, as Germany’s military
strategy was known, called for a fast attack on France followed by an
attack on Russia. German troops would have to strike at France
through Belgium for the plan to work.
The Belgians fiercely resisted the German army, giving France and
Britain valuable time to mobilize their troops. Yet by September 3, 1914,
the Germans were 25 miles from Paris, the French capital. In the First
Battle of the Marne, French troops launched a daring counterattack
against Germany. The French rushed to stop the enemy along the Marne
River east of Paris. After a few days of fighting, the Germans retreated.
Fighting between the armies continued as French and German
troops faced each other across the western front. This battle line
extended from Switzerland to the North Sea. Russia fought the Central
Powers along the eastern front, which stretched from the Black Sea to
the Baltic Sea. By mid-September 1914 the Central and Allied Powers
both realized that the war would not be a short one.
Britain’s declaration of
war against Germany was
front-page news.
✔ Reading Check:
Identifying Cause and Effect Why did Germany invade
Belgium and France, and how did the early fighting change attitudes
about the war?
Section
1
Review
keyword: SC5 HP22
3 Categorizing Copy the
1 Define and explain:
• nationalism
• militarism
• balance of power
• mobilize
chart below. Use it to
identify the long-term
and immediate causes
of World War I.
2 Identify and explain:
• Triple Alliance
• Triple Entente
• Franz Ferdinand
• Nicholas II
• Central Powers
• Allied Powers
• Wilhelm II
• First Battle of
the Marne
a. Why did other European countries become
involved in the conflict between AustriaHungary and Serbia?
b. Describe the early fighting in the war.
5 Writing and Critical Thinking
Causes of World War I
Long Term
4 Finding the Main Idea
Immediate
Analyzing Information Imagine that you are
a German army officer in September 1914.
Write a memo to the kaiser explaining the
outcome of the Schlieffen Plan.
Consider the following:
• the main points of the plan
• Belgian resistance
• the outcome of the First Battle of the Marne
World War I
671
Wilson and Neutrality
Read to Discover
Define
1. How did trench warfare and new weapons affect the
fighting in World War I?
2. How did the United States try to remain neutral
during the war?
3. What events led the United States to enter the war?
• trench warfare
• no-man’s-land
• stalemate
Identify
• U-boats
Reading Strategy
• Lusitania
SUPPORTING AN OPINION In this section, you will read that
President Wilson supported U.S. neutrality in the early years of World
War I. Do you agree or disagree with his point of view? As you read,
write details to support your opinion.
• Sussex pledge
• Arthur Zimmermann
• Zimmermann Note
The Story Continues
he day’s fighting seemed over. Two Allied officers sat on
a hill in southwestern Belgium. As they looked out over
fields and villages, a dog barked at some sheep, and a girl
sang as she walked by. Soldiers laughed as they cooked their
evening meal. As darkness fell, one officer remembered,
“without a moment’s warning, . . . we saw the whole horizon
burst into flame.” The Germans had begun to bombard the
area. The officers were stunned and soon concluded that
World War I had “a merciless, ruthless aspect [part] that
we had not realized till then.”
T
This painting shows a group of
Allied soldiers eating lunch.
A New Kind of War
New war strategies—along with new weapons—made the Great War a
conflict unlike any other. After the First Battle of the Marne, the Germans
dug in and prepared to hold their ground. Both the French and German
armies soon turned to trench warfare. Using this strategy, armies fought
from the protection of deep ditches to defend their positions. Two
massive systems of opposing trenches stretched for 400 miles across the
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Chapter 22
western front. Trenches ranged from simple holes to complex networks
with rooms for sleeping and eating.
The trenches were typically cold, wet, and dirty. A reporter
described a common effect of these conditions.
History
Makers
Speak
“Men standing in slime for days and nights in field boots . . .
lost all sense of feeling in their feet. These feet of theirs, so
cold and wet, began to swell, and then go ‘dead’ and then
suddenly to burn as though touched by red hot pokers.
”
—Philip Gibbs, Realities of War
In the trench environment disease spread rapidly. The area between
opposing trenches was called no-man’s-land. Much of the fighting took
place in this area, which varied in width from about 200 to 1,000 yards.
In the trenches, soldiers set up groups of machine guns that fired
400 to 600 rounds of ammunition per minute. In addition, huge guns
launched artillery shells. Some shells contained poison gas, such as chlorine gas or mustard gas. Poison gas destroyed soldiers’ lungs, killing
them slowly. Gas masks could provide protection. However, soldiers had
to either wear masks all the time or slip them on in seconds.
The armies also introduced new war machines. Airplanes, submarines, and tanks were all used in World War I. Armies used airplanes
to gather information, shoot down enemy planes, and fire on trenches.
Germany’s fleet of U-boats, or submarines, was the world’s largest and
most advanced, causing heavy losses to Allied shipping. British and
French forces developed armored tanks to support infantry attacks on
trenches. Early tanks were very tough and could cause heavy damage
but were also slow and hard to maneuver in muddy conditions.
✔ Reading Check:
Summarizing How did trench warfare and new
weaponry affect the fighting in World War I?
Trench Warfare Life in the
trenches along the western
front varied a great deal. In
quieter areas, troops suffered
from boredom. In areas that
saw more fighting, soldiers
faced danger and anxiety.
During the night, troops
often completed construction
and repair work. These jobs
might include laying cable or
barbed wire. Most attacks
began in the early morning.
At daybreak, soldiers on both
sides usually waited with their
rifles loaded. If there was no
enemy attack, they would eat
breakfast and prepare for a
day of listening to mortar fire.
What challenges did soldiers
face in the trenches?
Free Find:
Trench Warfare
After reading about trench
warfare on the Holt
Researcher CD–ROM,
imagine that you are a soldier fighting on the western front. Write a letter
home describing your
experiences.
World War I
673
A Military Deadlock
By late 1914 the war on the western front had become a stalemate, a
situation in which neither side can win a clear victory. During 1915
much of the fighting took place in eastern Europe. In February 1916 the
Germans attacked France again. They decided to try to capture the
French city of Verdun, near the southern end of the trench line. In
response, French general Philippe Pétain (pay-tan) vowed: “They shall
not pass.” After initial success, the German advance stalled outside the
city. The battle for Verdun continued for 10 months, making it the
longest battle of the war. When it was over, France still held the city.
In July, while fighting raged at Verdun, Allied forces began to attack
the Germans along the Somme River in northeastern France. Almost
20,000 Allied troops were killed in the first day of the battle. After
months of fighting, the Allied soldiers had forced the Germans to retreat
only a few miles. Allied and German forces both suffered terrible losses
at the Somme and Verdun. The death total reached almost 1 million. An
average of more than 138 soldiers died every hour.
C O N N E CT I N G TO
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The Airplane in World War I
The Wright brothers built the first successful powered
airplane in 1903. When World War I began, the Allied
and Central Powers used airplanes mostly for scouting.
Pilots flew high over the battlefield to take pictures of
enemy troops and equipment. The pictures provided
valuable information for military commanders. As the
war went on, the armies of both sides installed machine
guns on fighter planes and shot down enemy scouts.
Engineers improved fighter planes’ speed and ability to
maneuver. In addition, both the Allies and the Central
Powers built large bombers and developed planes that
could take off from ships. Thousands of planes were
built during the war. How were airplanes used in
World War I?
Machine guns
Rudder
Ailerons
Struts
Elevator
Engine
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Chapter 22
60
0
N
˚N
200
0
200
ARCTIC OCEAN
W
400 Miles
NORTH
AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
E
S
400 Kilometers
PACIFIC
OCEAN
NORWAY
PACIFIC
OCEAN
ANTARCTICA
SEA
IC
NORTH
SEA
Allied Powers,
1916
BA
DENMARK
RUSSIA
Tannenberg
NETHERLANDS
Lusitania
Aug. 1914
Central Powers,
1916
EASTERN
FRONT
Oct.– Nov. 1914
Berlin
London Apr.–May 1915
Ypres
GERMANY
BELGIUM
Sussex torpedoed
DEC. 1917
Neutral countries
Allied Powers
forces
March 1916
English
Channel
Somme
July–Nov. 1916
Paris
Battle of the Marne
LUXEMBOURG
ALSACELORRAINE
Vienna
WESTERN
FRONT
Sept. 1914 Verdun
Feb.–Dec. 1916
SWITZERLAND
Bay of
Biscay
AUSTRALIA
Robinson Projection
LT
GREAT
BRITAIN
50
˚N
SOUTH
AMERICA
Petrograd
SWEDEN
20˚W
INDIAN
OCEAN
FINLAND
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Central Powers
forces
AUSTRIAHUNGARY
Budapest
Caporetto
FRANCE
Oct.–Nov. 1917
AD
ITALY
SPAIN
Rome
ROMANIA
BOSNIA and
HERZEGOVINA
A Sarajevo
TI
C
SE
A
RI
40˚
N
PORTUGAL
ASIA
AFRICA
Equator
Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
sunk May 1915
EUROPE
Farthest Central
Powers advance
SERBIA
MONTENEGRO B a l k a n s
ALBANIA
GREECE
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
0˚
Farthest Russian
advance (1914)
BLACK SEA
Bosporus
BULGARIA
(Joined
Allied Powers
1917)
Trench line,
western front
Constantinople
Dardanelles
Gallipoli
Battle
April 1915–Jan. 1916
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
German
submarine
activity
10˚E
10˚W
British naval
blockade
20˚E
30˚E
World War I, 1914–1917
Interpreting Maps World War I saw few large-scale troop movements on the western front, with
soldiers often fighting for many months in the same location.
Skills Assessment Human Systems What battles took place along the western front trench lines?
The stalemate on land made the battles in the North Sea and
the Atlantic Ocean even more important. Each side depended on war
materials shipped by sea. Britain used its large navy to cut off the
shipment of much-needed supplies to Germany. The German navy
responded by sending its submarine fleet out to sink ships carrying
supplies for the Allies.
✔ Reading Check:
Finding the Main Idea Where did some of the World
War I fighting take place in 1915 and 1916?
Wilson Campaigns for Peace
Shortly after the war began in Europe, President Woodrow Wilson
announced that the United States would remain neutral. This decision
reflected the traditional U.S. policy of isolationism. Most Americans saw
the war as a European conflict. The popularity of one American song—
“I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier”—showed the antiwar views of
World War I
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Woodrow Wilson
Character Trait: Citizenship
To many people, President
Woodrow Wilson seemed cold
and distant. In private, however, Wilson could be warm
and lively. He was well educated, the first president to
have a Ph.D. As a college professor and later the president
of Princeton University, Wilson
was respected for his writings
on government and political
science. He brought his knowledge and personal ideals to his
administration, helping push
through many reforms.
Wilson was also heavily
involved in foreign policy.
Although he had wanted to
avoid joining the war in
Europe, he worked hard to
mobilize the U.S. war effort.
Wilson also played a major role
in the peace negotiations that
followed the war. However, his
efforts were limited by a
severe stroke that he suffered
on October 2, 1919. What personal traits did Wilson bring
to the presidency that
affected his administration?
many people. Not wanting to become involved in the fighting did not
keep Americans from choosing sides in the conflict. Most Americans
supported the Allies because of long-standing ties with either Britain or
France. However, millions of Americans had emigrated from the
countries of the Central Powers, and people tended to sympathize with
their homelands.
Official U.S. neutrality did not stop American merchants from
trading with the warring European nations. U.S. ships carried most of
the supplies, including war materials, to the Allies. By April 1917,
American banks had invested $2.6 billion in European war bonds. However, only $27 million was spent on German bonds.
During the war, Germany often broke the rules of neutrality in
the Atlantic. These rules required warships to stop and search merchant
vessels rather than simply destroy them on sight. The Germans knew
their submarines were defenseless above water, however, so they often
attacked without warning.
In May 1915 a U-boat sank the British passenger liner Lusitania off
the coast of Ireland. The attack killed nearly 1,200 people, including 128
Americans. The American public was outraged. President Wilson called
the attack “a violation not only of international law but of the fundamental decencies of civilization.” The German government argued that
the Lusitania had been carrying war materials. The Germans added that
Americans had been warned not to travel through the war zone.
Less than a year later, a U-boat sank the French passenger ship
Sussex. After this attack, Wilson threatened to end diplomatic relations
with Germany. Germany then issued the Sussex pledge, which included
a promise not to sink merchant vessels “without warning and without
saving human lives.”
As President Wilson campaigned for re-election during the fall of
1916, he continued to work for peace. Wilson’s opponent was Republican
Charles Evans Hughes, a Supreme Court justice and former governor of
New York. Hughes criticized Wilson for not strongly defending
American rights in Europe. The race between Wilson and Hughes was
very close. Many Americans opposed Wilson’s foreign policy. Other voters were not sure Wilson could keep the United States out of the war. In
the end, however, the belief that Wilson would avoid a war helped him
win re-election in November 1916.
Once re-elected, Wilson began work on a settlement to end the war.
In a speech to the Senate on January 22, 1917, Wilson proposed “peace
without victory.” He called on the Allied and Central Powers to declare
peace without either side winning. Wilson’s speech angered the Allies,
particularly the British. The Allies blamed the Central Powers for the
war and wanted them to pay for wartime destruction. At the very least,
the Allies demanded a German admission of guilt.
✔ Reading Check:
Supporting a Point of View Do you think the United
States was truly neutral in 1914–1916? Support your answer.
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Chapter 22
Congress Declares War
All hopes for peace soon ended. The
Germans broke the Sussex pledge and began
unrestricted submarine warfare again on
February 1, 1917. President Wilson quickly
cut off diplomatic relations with Germany
and ordered U.S. merchant ships to be fitted
with guns. Tensions rose when American
newspapers printed a secret German telegram
in March. In it, German foreign secretary
Arthur Zimmermann proposed an alliance
between Germany and Mexico against the
United States. He told the German minister in
Mexico that Germany would help Mexico “reconquer the lost territory
in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.” The telegram, known as the
Zimmermann Note, outraged the American public.
In early April, Wilson responded to the new threats by asking
Congress to declare war on Germany. He said that “the world must be
made safe for democracy.”
History
Makers
Speak
“We shall fight for the things which we have always carried
nearest our hearts, for democracy . . . [and to] bring peace and
safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free.”
—Woodrow Wilson, quoted in America Enters the World, by Page Smith
Submarine attacks with results
like the sinking of the Lusitania
were a major cause of American
outrage toward Germany.
Analyzing Primary Sources
Identifying Points of View
What does Wilson say the
United States is fighting for?
Congress approved President Wilson’s request. On April 6, 1917, the
United States declared war on Germany.
✔ Reading Check:
Sequencing What events, in their proper sequence,
resulted in the United States entering World War I?
Section
2
Review
1 Define and explain:
• trench warfare
• no-man’s-land
• stalemate
2 Identify and explain:
• U-boats
• Lusitania
• Sussex pledge
• Arthur Zimmermann
• Zimmermann Note
keyword: SC5 HP22
3 Analyzing Information
Copy the graphic organizer
below. Use it to explain
why the United States
decided to declare war
on Germany in 1917.
4 Finding the Main Idea
a. What effects did trench warfare and new
weapons have on the fighting in World War I?
b. What steps did President Wilson take to
preserve U.S. neutrality and end the war?
5 Writing and Critical Thinking
Identifying Points of View Imagine that you
are an American journalist. Write a short
editorial describing the Lusitania incident.
Causes
War
Consider the following:
• how the American public reacted
• why Germany believed such attacks were
necessary
World War I
677
Americans Prepare for War
Read to Discover
Identify
1. How did the U.S. government prepare citizens and the
military for war?
2. What contributions did women and African Americans
make to the war effort?
3. How did the war affect industry and labor?
• Committee on Public
Information
• George Creel
• Espionage Act of 1917
• Sedition Act of 1918
• Selective Service Act
Reading Strategy
• Liberty bonds
BUILDING BACKGROUND INFORMATION Use the “Read to
Discover” questions, vocabulary, and visuals in this section to make
predictions about the text. Write questions about the text based on
your predictions. Look for answers to your questions as you read.
• War Industries Board
• Bernard Baruch
• National War Labor Board
The Story Continues
hortly after Congress declared war, Major Palmer E.
Pierce appeared before the Senate Finance Committee.
Pierce answered questions from the committee about how
the War Department planned to spend the $3 billion it had
requested. He explained that the money would go for “clothing, cots, camps, food, pay. . . . And we may have to have an
army in France.” The chairman of the Senate committee
exclaimed, “Good Lord! You’re not going to send soldiers
over there, are you?” Although most Americans supported
the declaration of war, few were ready to risk the lives of
U.S. troops.
S
Political groups like the
Socialist Party questioned
the reasons for the U.S.
entry into World War I.
Rallying the Public
One week after Congress declared war on Germany, President Wilson
created a new agency—the Committee on Public Information (CPI),
to help raise public support for the war effort. George Creel, the head of
the CPI, began a nationwide publicity campaign. Creel used rallies,
parades, posters, and pamphlets to persuade Americans to support the
war effort. The committee recruited movie stars to entertain troops.
678
Chapter 22
Hollywood made movies like The Kaiser: The Beast of Berlin. Some
75,000 speakers, called “four-minute men,” gave short patriotic speeches
in churches, movie theaters, and schools. They explained why the
United States should take part in the Great War.
At the same time, the government limited some freedoms. The
Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 outlawed actions
against the U.S. government. The Espionage Act punished people for aiding the enemy or refusing military duty. The Sedition Act made it illegal for
Americans to speak disloyally about the U.S. government, Constitution, or
flag. More than 1,000 opponents of the war were jailed under these laws.
Some Americans also considered religious groups that believed in peace to
be disloyal. In addition, German Americans faced harassment and charges
of disloyalty because of strong anti-German feelings.
✔ Reading Check:
Contrasting How did the government build support for
the war and punish those who opposed it?
Interpreting the Visual Record
Rallying support Movie stars
such as Douglas Fairbanks,
Mary Pickford, and Charlie
Chaplin helped sell Liberty
bonds. How do you think
these movie stars were able
to increase public support
for the war?
Mobilizing for War
When the war began, the U.S. Army and National Guard had some 750,000
men. This number was not enough to help the Allies, even with thousands
of men enlisting. On May 18, 1917, Congress passed the Selective Service
Act. This act required men between the ages of 21 and 30 to register to be
drafted into the armed forces. Almost 3 million men who served during
the war were draftees. Some Americans saw the draft as a violation of civil
liberties. Others, such as Quakers, refused to fight because of their religious
beliefs. Many of these men served in noncombat roles.
At first the government limited African American soldiers to noncombat roles, bringing protests from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In response, the military formed some
African American combat units and an officer-training camp for African
Americans. However, the majority of the more than 370,000 African
Americans who served in the military did so in segregated units commanded by white officers. Once in Europe, most African American troops
fought alongside the French army. U.S. officials worried that conflict might
erupt if white and black soldiers fought together in the U.S. Army.
At the same time, African Americans at home faced ongoing discrimination and violence. On July 28, 1917, some 15,000 African Americans
marched in silence down New York City’s Fifth Avenue. They carried signs
and passed out Why We March leaflets containing their message.
History
Makers
Speak
“We march because we are thoroughly opposed to Jim Crow
cars, segregation, discrimination, and disfranchisement
[denial of voting rights], lynching, and the host of evils that
are forced on us. We march because we want our children to live in a
better land.
Analyzing Primary Sources
Identifying Points of View
Why did African Americans
march?
”
—Anonymous, quoted in Eyewitness: The Negro in American History, by William Loren Katz
World War I
679
Women in Wartime
Some American women also aided the war effort.
About 25,000 female volunteers served in France,
working as interpreters, nurses, and typists. The
“Hello Girls” of the U.S. Army Signal Corps handled
military telephone service, including translating calls
and sending battle orders. None of the women in the
military received a pension for their service.
Although officially not allowed in combat,
many female nurses and ambulance drivers worked
at the front lines.
Women joined the war effort
by serving as ambulance drivers,
often transporting wounded
soldiers directly from the
front lines to hospitals.
History
Makers
Speak
“We had our first air-raid work last night. I was the night-
driver on duty. . . . Some bombs fell very near just as I got to
the [evacuation hospital]. . . . I had just stopped . . . when
shrapnel [metal fragments] whizzed past my head and there was a
tremendous crash close beside. . . . Then an ambulance call came
and I tore off
”
—Mrs. Guy Napier-Martin, quoted in The Overseas War Record of the Winsor School
Many other women volunteered for the Red Cross and worked at home
and abroad. Women also filled important industrial jobs and clerical
positions. Some 1 million women filled positions in the U.S. labor force.
Some women, including social reformer Jane Addams, opposed
America’s entry into the war and worked for peace. Jeannette Rankin of
Montana, the first woman elected to the U.S. Congress, cast one of the
few votes against President Wilson’s war resolution. She stated, “I want
to stand by my country but I cannot vote for war.”
That’s Interesting!
✔ Reading Check:
Comparing and Contrasting How did African Americans and women contribute to the war effort?
War without Weapons
Did you know that early
in World War I military airplanes were not armed?
It’s true! The fragile aircraft
used in 1914 could not carry
weapons. These planes struggled in strong winds and
were often brought down by
bad weather. Still, airplanes
were quite important to the
war effort. Planes were
eventually equipped with
machine guns and were used
to bomb enemy positions. By
1918 Great Britain, France,
and Germany each fielded
several thousand aircraft.
680
Chapter 22
Organizing for the War
In addition to raising troops, the government needed to raise money
and supplies. To do so, it expanded its role in the economy. Congress
raised income taxes and started a tax on business profits. Most importantly, the government issued war bonds, called Liberty bonds. Money
from the sale of these bonds provided loans to the Allies, allowing them
to buy food and war supplies. The U.S. government raised more than
$20 billion by selling Liberty bonds.
President Wilson also created the War Industries Board (WIB) to
oversee the production and distribution of goods made by the country’s
war industries. Bernard Baruch, head of the WIB, explained the
agency’s role. “No steel, copper, cement, rubber, or other basic materials
could be used without our [WIB] approval.”
THE GRA
NGER CO
LLECTIO
N, NEW
YORK
THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK
The passage of the Lever Food and Fuel Control Act of
1917 gave the federal government the power to set price and
production controls over food and fuel. Herbert Hoover led the
new Food Administration, created to increase food supplies for
the troops. The Food Administration’s slogan was “Food Can
Win the War.” He got farmers to grow more food by promising
high prices for crops. Production and prices increased greatly.
Hoover also urged Americans to eat less by calling for “meatless
Mondays” and “wheatless Wednesdays.” He asked people to
plant vegetables at home in “victory gardens.”
The effort to supply the troops proved helpful to most
workers in the United States. Three conditions combined to
produce higher wages and better conditions for labor.
1. The Allied need for American products.
2. The labor shortage as men joined armed forces.
3. The decline in immigrant workers.
The entry of many women into the industrial workforce was not enough
to fill all the empty positions.
New and remaining workers took advantage of the labor shortage by
demanding higher wages and better working conditions. Union membership grew during the war. More than 4 million workers went on
strike in 1919, the highest proportion of the workforce to strike either
before or since the war.
In April 1918 President Wilson created the National War Labor
Board. This board worked to settle disputes between workers and management and to prevent strikes. The board was sympathetic to workers
and supported their right to collective bargaining. It also outlined both
minimum-wage and maximum-hour standards in the workplace.
✔ Reading Check:
U.S. propaganda posters
encouraged Americans to
work hard and make sacrifices
to help win the war.
Analyzing Information How did the war affect industry
and labor?
Section
3
Review
1 Identify and explain:
• Committee on Public
Information
• George Creel
• Espionage Act of 1917
• Sedition Act of 1918
• Selective Service Act
• Liberty bonds
• War Industries Board
• Bernard Baruch
• National War Labor
Board
keyword: SC5 HP22
2 Summarizing Copy
the graphic organizer
below. Use it to identify
the changes made by
the U.S. government to
prepare to fight in
World War I.
Economy
Economy
Military
Military
U.S.U.S.
WarWar
Preparation
Preparation
Public
Public
Support
Support
3 Finding the Main Idea
a. How did women and African Americans
contribute to the war effort?
b. What changes did the war create for
industry and labor?
4 Writing and Critical Thinking
Supporting a Point of View Imagine that you
are the head of the Committee on Public
Information. Create a poster to encourage
Americans to support the war effort.
Consider the following:
• popular American views of the enemy
• the importance of buying Liberty bonds
• the importance of volunteering
World War I
681
Americans “Over There”
Read to Discover
Define
1. How did the Bolshevik Revolution affect World War I?
2. How did the entry of the United States affect the war?
3. Why did Germany finally agree to an armistice?
• armistice
Reading Strategy
• Communists
USING SIGNAL WORDS Preview each subsection and look for
sequencing signal words, such as when, then, after, and on (date). Use
the signal words to help you predict the main ideas of each subsection.
As you read the section, confirm or revise your predictions.
Identify
• American Expeditionary Force
• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
• Second Battle of the Marne
The Story Continues
n June 1917 the first U.S. forces arrived in France. In
Boulogne the French Republican Guard band greeted
the soldiers with “The Star-Spangled Banner.” They followed
with the French national anthem, “La Marseillaise” (mahrse-yays). The sidewalks overflowed with people welcoming
the troops. An American journalist traveling with the soldiers
described the scene. “From the crowded balconies and windows overlooking the route, women and children tossed
down showers of flowers and bits of colored paper. . . .
Occasionally there came from the crowds a good old
genuine American whoop-em-up yell.”
K
LECTION, NEW YOR
THE GRANGER COL
I
George M. Cohan’s song
“Over There” celebrated the
arrival of U.S. forces in Europe.
The Americans Arrive
When the first U.S. troops arrived, the Allies were in bad shape. German
troops occupied Belgium and part of France. The German navy was
destroying Allied ships at an alarming rate. Russia was barely able to hold
the Germans back. General John J. Pershing commanded the American
Expeditionary Force (AEF). The AEF included a large force of volunteers
and draftees as well as soldiers from the regular army and the National
Guard. Pershing worked hard to train his troops for trench warfare.
682
Chapter 22
Meanwhile, the Allies suffered a major blow when the Bolshevik
Revolution took place in Russia in November 1917. The Bolsheviks took
control of Russia’s government. They were Communists—people who
seek the equal distribution of wealth and an end to all forms of private
property. The new government, led by Vladimir I. Lenin, faced famine
and civil war. Russia thus withdrew from the fighting in December. In
March 1918 Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, a peace agreement with the Central Powers.
✔ Reading Check:
Finding the Main Idea What effect did the Communist
takeover of Russia have on the war?
Free Find:
John Pershing
After reading about
General John Pershing on
the Holt Researcher CD–ROM,
imagine that you are introducing General Pershing at
a banquet being held in
his honor. Write a short
speech describing his
accomplishments.
The Final Battles
With Russia out of the conflict and most U.S. troops not yet ready to
fight, Germany saw its last chance to win the war. In the spring of 1918
Germany launched a series of major attacks on the western front. During these weeks, the first U.S. troops suffered the cruel realities of war.
On March 21 the Germans attacked along the Somme River in
northern France. Two days later, German artillery bombarded Paris from
about 75 miles away. But after pushing some 40 miles into Allied lines,
the advance stalled as German troops advanced farther and faster than
their supplies. The attack cost the German army 250,000 casualties. Allied
losses were slightly lower. On April 9 the German army began a second
offensive against the British line in northwestern France, near Belgium.
Urged to “fight on to the end,” the British stopped the Germans. In 20 days
of combat, there were 110,000 casualties on the two sides.
C O N N E C T I N G TO
John Philip Sousa
J
ohn Philip Sousa was born in 1854 in Washington,
D.C. He earned a place in the world of music by
writing more marches than anyone else in history.
Sousa wrote more than 135 military marches,
including “Semper Fidelis” and “The Stars and
Stripes Forever.” His marches were hugely popular
and still inspire strong feelings of patriotism.
During World War I, Sousa joined the U.S. Naval
Reserve at the age of 62 to organize its band units.
He toured with a navy band of more than 300
sailors. In addition to entertaining the troops,
Sousa’s band
also assisted in the Liberty Loan and
CF03P5C11000024P
used
atmany
157%marches during
Red Crossreacquire:
drives. Sousa
wrote
the war, including “The Chantyman’s March” and
John Philip
Sousa
“Sabre and Spurs.” In 1918,
when anti-German feelings
were running high, the American
Relief Legion asked Sousa to write
a wedding march. Some Americans
wanted to replace the often-used music
of German composers. Sousa’s “Wedding March”
was performed at many wedding ceremonies held
during World War I.
Understanding What You Read
The Arts and History Why do you think Sousa’s
music was so popular?
World War I 683
4˚E
2˚E
ENGLAND
ARCTIC OCEAN
NORTH
SEA
52˚N
NETHERLANDS
The Western Front
in 1918
NORTH
AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
INDIAN
OCEAN
SOUTH
AMERICA
London
AUSTRALIA
ANTARCTICA
Robinson Projection
0
0˚
En
gl
ish
a
Ch
nn
0
el
BELGIUM
50˚N
So
m
m
eR
iv e r
Sedan
Ri
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
LUXEMBOURG
GERMANY
Argonne Forest
Sept.–Nov. 1918
v
rn
S
Ri
e
ve
r
ve
Ri
S
FRANCE
Verdun
Ma
E
ChâteauThierry
June 1918
ne
ei
W
Paris
ine
Ri
ve
N
50 Miles
50 Kilometers
r
Se
in
e
25
25
er
1. The World in Spatial Terms
What was the farthest distance
the German forces had to
retreat to reach the armistice
line?
2. Analyzing Information How
close did the Germans get to
reaching Paris by June 1918?
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Rh
Skills Assessment
ASIA
AFRICA
Equator
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Interpreting Maps In 1918, after
Russia withdrew from the war,
Germany used its eastern forces to
push into France.
EUROPE
r
Tins used by soldiers
to store food and
condiments
Allied Powers
Central Powers forces
Allied victory
Central Powers
German advance
(Summer 1918)
Armistice line,
Nov. 11, 1918
Neutral countries
Allied Powers forces
SWITZERLAND
Allies on the Attack
World War I soldiers carried all
their necessary equipment on
their backs, making for a
heavy load.
Farther south, German forces were threatening to break through the
thin French line and march toward Paris. Then two divisions of the
American Expeditionary Force joined the French to strike back. U.S.
troops stopped the German advance at the town of Château-Thierry
(shah-toh-tye-REE), within 50 miles of Paris. The Allies then gradually
pushed back another German offensive at Belleau Wood, a forest in
northern France.
By the beginning of July 1918, some 1 million U.S. troops and military personnel were stationed in France. In mid-July the Germans
launched their last, desperate offensive. At the Second Battle of the
Marne, both sides suffered heavy casualties. However, the German
losses destroyed their ability to attack again.
The Allies counterattacked in September. In the first mainly American
assault, U.S. forces defeated the Germans at Saint-Mihiel, near the border
of France and Germany. By November 1918 General Pershing’s troops
had broken through enemy lines. The Allies continued to advance toward
the railway at Sedan on the Belgian border, which was the main supply
line for German forces. Other Allied forces also advanced.
✔ Reading Check:
proper sequence.
684
Sequencing List the final battles of the war in their
Armistice
By the fall of 1918, food riots and strikes were
taking place in Germany and other countries of
the Central Powers. Some German soldiers
deserted and others were captured by Allied
forces. Faced with these conditions, members of
the Central Powers began to surrender. In early
November the Allies reached a peace agreement
with Austria-Hungary.
Germany soon agreed to a cease-fire. As part
of the agreement, Kaiser Wilhelm II abandoned the German throne and
fled to the Netherlands. Germany became a republic. The Allied Powers
demanded that Germany leave all occupied territory. German aircraft,
heavy artillery, tanks, and U-boats were to be surrendered. Germany
was also required to accept the occupation of some German territory by
Allied troops. On the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of
1918, the armistice, or truce, officially ended the war. An Allied soldier
described the troops’ reaction to the news.
History
Makers
Speak
“There came a second of expectant silence, and then a curious rippling sound. . . . It was the sound of men cheering
from the Vosges [a French mountain range] to the sea.”
—John Buchan, The King’s Grace
However, the terrible tragedy of the war limited the celebration.
✔ Reading Check:
armistice?
Section
The French
government
rewarded these
African American
soldiers with the
Croix de Guerre
(right) for their
bravery during
the war.
November 11, 1918
The armistice officially
ends World War I.
Summarizing What conditions led Germany to sign the
s
Review
keyword: SC5 HP22
1 Define and explain:
• armistice
2 Identify and explain:
• American
Expeditionary Force
• Communists
• Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk
• Second Battle of
the Marne
3 Sequencing Copy the
graphic organizer below.
Use it to explain, in the
order that they occurred,
the events that led to the
end of the war after the
United States joined the
fighting.
Allied
Victory
United States Enters the War
4 Finding the Main Idea
a. Why did Russia withdraw from the war,
and how did this affect the Allies?
b. Do you think the Allies would have won the
war if the United States had not joined them?
Explain your answer.
5 Writing and Critical Thinking
Evaluating Imagine that you are a reporter
for an American newspaper who has been
assigned to cover the western front in 1918.
Write a one- or two-paragraph story analyzing
the reasons Germany agreed to an armistice.
Consider the following:
• the condition of the German and Allied
troops in the final battles
• conditions in Germany
• the surrender of other Central Powers
World War I
685
Establishing Peace
Read to Discover
Define
1. What were the human and economic costs of World War I?
2. What were the terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
3. How did the U.S. government respond to the Treaty of
Versailles?
• self-determination
• reparations
Identify
• Fourteen Points
Reading Strategy
• League of Nations
OUTLINING Use the headings in this section to create an outline. As
you read the section, write the main ideas and details you learn beneath
the headings.
• Treaty of Versailles
The Story Continues
hen news of the armistice reached the United States,
Americans celebrated with great enthusiasm. U.S.
cities and industries were untouched by the destruction of
the war. But World War I had left much of Europe in ruins.
A British visitor described the war’s impact on the French
countryside. “For mile after mile nothing was left. No building was habitable.” Millions of people found their lives
and homelands wrecked by the terrible conflict.
W
Two women sweep this
marine off his feet after
the armistice.
Europe after the War
World War I carried a heavy human cost. The Allies lost more than
5 million soldiers on the battlefield. More than 112,000 U.S. troops died,
more than half of them from influenza, a viral infection. The Central
Powers lost about 3.4 million soldiers. More than 20 million soldiers on
both sides were wounded. Millions of civilians were also killed during
the four years of fighting.
The economies of the countries of Europe were ruined. Estimates of
the damage caused by the war were difficult to make because of the scale
of the destruction. In 1920 the Carnegie Endowment for International
686
Chapter 22
Peace declared that the total cost of the war had
exceeded $330 billion. Industry and agriculture
were nearly wiped out in Belgium, France, Russia,
and other parts of Europe.
France and Britain owed American banks billions
of dollars borrowed during the war. Germany also
faced heavy debts and severe food shortages. Many
people feared that these economic troubles would
allow the communist revolution in Russia to spread
to other countries.
✔ Reading Check:
Finding the Main Idea How did
the war affect economic and social life in Europe?
Interpreting the Visual Record
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
While Americans welcomed the armistice, President Wilson tried to
make a lasting peace. Even before the United States entered the war,
Wilson had been preparing for its end. On January 8, 1918, Wilson outlined a plan for postwar Europe and proposed a system to avoid future
wars. This plan was called the Fourteen Points because it set forth 14
basic ideals. (See pages 348–49.) The president believed that the peace
terms should not be so harsh on the Central Powers that the settlement
would provoke another war.
Most of the Fourteen Points dealt with the future of specific
nations and regions. Some points called for the freedom of ships on the
seas, smaller armies and navies, and lower tariffs. Wilson asked for fair
settlement of colonial demands for independence and an end to secret
agreements between nations. Wilson stressed the right of people to decide
their own political status—the right of self-determination. Wilson’s last
point called for the creation of the League of Nations. The League would
be a congress of nations formed to settle international disputes and
maintain peace and collective security.
Other Allied leaders, however, disagreed. An American journalist
wrote that these leaders wanted “a new world domination with themselves and ourselves [Americans] dominating; what they decidedly do not
want is a democratic peace.” France and Britain wanted to punish
Germany and make sure that it would never again be a world power. As
one reporter wrote, Britain and France wanted Germany to “pay, pay, pay.”
Many Americans agreed. However, a Montana rancher who had three
sons in the army in France wanted the government to do more. “Take
steps to see that there shall never be another tragedy like this,” he wrote in
a letter to Wilson’s cabinet. “Fix the matter so that neither Germany nor
any other nation can ruin the world.”
Disarmament These members
of the Disarmament Conference of the League of Nations
are struggling with the problems of enforcing the peace.
What challenges do you think
these people face during the
conference?
✔ Reading Check:
Identifying Cause and Effect Why did Wilson propose
the Fourteen Points, and what measures did they include?
World War I
687
LI N KING
PAST to
PRESENT
The League of
Nations and the
United Nations
Countries formed the League
of Nations after World War I
to maintain international
peace. After World War II,
countries formed the United
Nations (UN) for similar
reasons. The League of
Nations failed partly because
the United States was not
a member. The United States
has been a member of the
UN since its creation in 1945.
During the UN’s early
years of existence, fear of
a U.S.-Soviet confrontation
limited its use of force to
resolve conflicts. In recent
years, however, increased
international cooperation
has strengthened the UN. The
number of ongoing peacekeeping missions conducted
by the UN increased from 5
in 1988 to 15 in 2001. The UN
also runs many humanitarian
programs, including aid to
refugees and to developing
countries as well as famine
relief. What does the
United Nations do today?
688
Chapter 22
The Paris Peace Conference
President Wilson arrived in Europe on December 13, 1918. He ignored
protests from Republican critics that no American president had ever
gone to Europe before. Some supporters also worried about the amount
of time he would spend overseas during the negotiations. Wilson
believed it was “now my duty to play my full part in making good what
[our soldiers] offered their lives to obtain.” He was ready to persuade the
Allies to adopt a peace plan based on his Fourteen Points. Leaders of the
Allied nations attended the peace conference at the palace of Versailles
(ver-SY) outside Paris. The new leaders of Russia refused to attend, and
no representatives of the Central Powers were invited. President
Woodrow Wilson of the United States, British prime minister David
Lloyd George, and French premier Georges Clemenceau (kle-mahn-soh)
attended the conference. Together with Italian prime minister Vittorio
Orlando, these “Big Four” dominated the peace conference.
Wilson and the European leaders clashed, however. Wilson favored
his ideals of peace and democracy as set forth in the Fourteen Points.
The three European leaders wanted to reward the Allies and punish the
former Central Powers. Lloyd George’s main concern was keeping the
British Empire together and protecting its interests. Clemenceau wanted
to punish Germany so severely that it could never again harm France.
Orlando wanted Italy to receive land it had been promised when it
entered the war on the Allied side.
The other national leaders also wanted Germany to accept the blame
and pay the Allied Powers for the full cost of the war. Wilson was forced
to compromise. He agreed that Germany should pay reparations—
payments for damages and expenses caused by the war. The amount was
eventually set at $33 billion. The president also agreed that Germany
must return the border region of Alsace-Lorraine to France, giving
France some of the defensive security that it desired. Also, the Allies
would gain control of a region in western Germany.
The final peace settlement of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles,
did include some of the Fourteen Points. The treaty partially used the
right of national self-determination. Some countries won the right to
decide their own political situation, rather than have an outside imperial
power decide it. Some new countries were formed and old ones were
restored. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were created and Poland was
re-established. Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania became free
nations. The Central Powers were also forced to surrender control of
their colonies to the Allies.
A system of mandates gave the League of Nations control over
the former colonies of the Central Powers. Under this system, the
League placed each of the colonies into one of several categories. Some
areas, particularly the German colonies in the Pacific, were given to
10˚ E
ARCTIC OCEAN
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
AFRICA
20˚ E
30˚ E
40˚ E
Countries created
after World War I
ASIA
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Lost by Germany
Equator
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIAN
OCEAN
SOUTH
AMERICA
Lost by Bulgaria
AUSTRALIA
Lost by Russia
Robinson Projection
10˚ W
0˚
FINLAND
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
SE A
Occupied by Allies
IC
Free City
of Danzig
GERMANY
EC H
Rh
in
eR
.
LUXEMBOURG
AlsaceLorraine
FRANCE
O SL
POLAND
OV A K
N
IA
D an
1. Places and Regions How many
new European countries were
formed after World War I?
2. Summarizing What countries
had regions occupied by the
Allies after the war?
S
ROMANIA
ube
YUGOSLAVIA
ria
t ic
BLACK SEA
BULGARIA
Se
(French)
ITALY
E
W
R.
Ad
40˚ N
RUSSIA
AUSTRIA HUNGARY
CORSICA
Skills Assessment
East
Prussia
SWITZERLAND
SPAIN
Area unchanged
LITHUANIA
NETHERLANDS
Rhineland
Saarland
CZ
French mandate
ESTONIA
LATVIA
LT
DENMARK
BA
BELGIUM
Interpreting Maps World War I
led to the collapse of empires and
to the formation of several new
European countries.
British mandate
SWEDEN
GREAT
BRITAIN
50˚
N
Lost by
Ottoman Empire
NORWAY
NORTH
SEA
IRISH
FREE
STATE
Europe after the
Treaty of Versailles,
1919–1920
Lost by
Austria-Hungary
ANTARCTICA
60
˚N
a
ALBANIA
TURKEY
SARDINIA
GREECE
(Italian)
LATAKIA
SICILY
(Italian)
ALGERIA
(French)
TUNISIA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
CRETE
(Greek)
(French)
SYRIA
DODECANESE
ISLANDS
(Italian)
LEBANON
CYPRUS
(British)
IRAQ
PALESTINE
TRANSJORDAN
0
0
250
250
500 Miles
500 Kilometers
Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
NEJD
LIBYA
(Italian)
EGYPT
(British)
HEJAZ
Woodrow Wilson’s efforts
were key to the creation of
the League of Nations.
Allied countries to control. Other former colonies were placed under
the temporary control of Allied nations until they were ready for
independence. For example, Britain and France were granted mandates
to administer several states in the Middle East.
Although the treaty did not include everything that Wilson wanted,
he believed that the League of Nations could resolve any problems the
treaty itself created or that it had failed to solve. When Wilson addressed
the members of the peace conference on February 14, 1919, he stated
that the war had in fact done some good.
History
Makers
Speak
“Some very beautiful things have come out of it. Wrong has
been defeated, but the rest of the world has been more conscious than it was before of the majesty of right.”
—Woodrow Wilson, quoted in America Enters the World, by Page Smith
All that remained was to convince the U.S. Senate to approve the treaty,
but Wilson was not prepared for the opposition he met there.
✔ Reading Check:
Analyzing Primary Sources
Supporting a Point of View
Do you agree or disagree with
Wilson that some good had
come out of the war? Explain
your answer.
Summarizing What did the Treaty of Versailles call for?
World War I
689
Causes and Effects of World War I
Long-Term Causes
Intermediate Causes
Nationalism
Militarism
Competition for territory
Alliance system in
Europe
Assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Austria-Hungary’s declaration of
war on Serbia
Mobilization of European armies
Germany’s invasion of Belgium
World War I
1914—1918
Effects
U.S. entry into the war in 1917
Millions of deaths and widespread
destruction in Europe
Breakup of German and
Austro-Hungarian Empires
Creation of several new nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations
For President Wilson, the most important of the treaty’s terms was the
creation of the League of Nations. In his view, the League of Nations
would include representatives from democratic countries. It would
promote peace by working cooperatively to settle disputes and to reduce
armaments. The League would include a council, an assembly, and a
permanent administrative staff.
Each member state would be represented in the assembly and would
have one vote. The council would also include five permanent
members—Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States.
Eventually, all independent countries would be allowed to join. However,
the former Central Powers could not be members in the beginning.
Member nations would present disagreements to the Permanent
Court of International Justice, or World Court. If a member nation did
not obey the court’s judgment, the League could impose penalties on that
nation. Penalties included banning trade or even the use of military force.
Peace without a Treaty
President Wilson was surprised that Congress did not share his enthusiasm for the Treaty of Versailles or the League of Nations. Republican
senator Henry Cabot Lodge argued, “No peace that satisfied Germany in
any degree can ever satisfy us.”
690
Chapter 22
To get the two-thirds majority necessary for Senate
approval of the treaty, Wilson needed Republican support. Although most Democratic senators supported the
treaty, many Republican senators disagreed with certain
parts of it and demanded changes. Wilson, who expected
the treaty to pass, stubbornly refused to compromise.
Most of the Republicans worried about the collective
security clause of the League of Nations. Collective
security—the promise to defend other countries if they
are attacked—would involve the United States more closely in European
affairs. The Republicans were strongly isolationist and suspicious of
European countries’ motives.
Wilson took his cause to the American public by going on an extended
speaking tour and urging Americans to pressure the Senate Republicans to
pass the treaty. However, he suffered a stroke in October 1919. Although
Wilson survived, he never fully recovered.
In November, Senator Lodge presented the treaty for Senate
consideration with a list of 14 changes, or reservations. He wanted to limit
U.S. military involvement in the League. Otherwise, his reservations did
not change the treaty greatly. However, Wilson pressured Democrats to
vote against any compromise. After several earlier votes failed to approve
the treaty, the Senate defeated the measure for the last time in March 1920.
Wilson’s refusal to compromise cost him his goal of U.S. membership in the League of Nations. In the end, the United States signed
separate peace treaties with Austria, Germany, and Hungary. Without
the United States in the League of Nations, its ability to protect world
peace seemed uncertain.
The Foreign Relations Committee, led by Senator Henry Cabot
Lodge, demanded changes to
the Treaty of Versailles.
✔ Reading Check:
Analyzing Information Why did some Americans oppose
membership in the League of Nations?
Section
5
Review
keyword: SC5 HP22
1 Define and explain:
• self-determination
• reparations
2 Identify and explain:
• Fourteen Points
• League of Nations
• Treaty of Versailles
3 Identifying Cause and
Effect Copy the graphic
organizer below. Use it to
explain the reasons many
senators opposed the
Treaty of Versailles and
what the results were.
Senate Opposition
Results
4 Finding the Main Idea
a. How did the war affect the people and the
economies of the countries involved?
b. What were the conditions and requirements
of the Treaty of Versailles?
5 Writing and Critical Thinking
Supporting a Point of View Imagine that you
are a senator debating the Treaty of Versailles.
Write a speech explaining your position for or
against the treaty.
Consider the following:
• punishing Germany for the destruction of
World War I
• preventing a similar war in the future
• the constitutionality of the League of Nations
World War I
691
Historical Documents
THE FOURTEEN POINTS
P
resident Wilson announced his specific proposals
for a postwar peace in an address to Congress on
January 8, 1918. His proposal became known as
the Fourteen Points. An excerpt from the Fourteen Points
appears below.
Gentlemen of the Congress:
It will be our wish and purpose that the processes
of peace, when they are begun, shall be absolutely
open and that they shall involve and permit henceforth no secret understandings of any kind. . . . The
program of the world’s peace, therefore, is our
program; and that program, the only possible
program, as we see it, is this:
1
I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived
II.
III.
IV.
V.
at, after which there shall be no private
international understandings of any kind but
diplomacy2 shall proceed always frankly and
in the public view.
Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas,
outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in
war, except as the seas may be closed in whole
or in part by international action for the
enforcement of international covenants.
The removal, so far as possible, of all economic
barriers and the establishment of an equality
of trade conditions among all the nations
consenting to the peace and associating
themselves for its maintenance.
Adequate3 guarantees given and taken that
national armaments4 will be reduced to the
lowest point consistent with domestic safety.
A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial5
adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a
strict observance6 of the principle that in
determining all such questions of sovereignty7
the interests of the populations concerned
must have equal weight with the equitable8
claims of the government whose title is to be
determined.
President Wilson hoped
his efforts would lead
to greater international
cooperation and world
peace.
VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and
such a settlement of all questions affecting
Russia as will secure the best and freest
cooperation of the other nations of the world
in obtaining for her an . . . opportunity for
the independent determination of her own
political development and national policy and
assure her of a sincere welcome into the
society of free nations under institutions of
her own choosing; and, more than a welcome,
assistance also of every kind that she may
need and may herself desire.
VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be
evacuated and restored, without any attempt
to limit the sovereignty9 which she enjoys in
common with all other free nations. No other
single act will serve as this will serve to restore
confidence among the nations in the laws
which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations
with one another. Without this healing act the
whole structure and validity10 of international
law is forever impaired.11
VIII. All French territory should be freed and the
invaded portions restored, and the wrong
done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the
matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled
the peace of the world for nearly fifty years,
1
5
9
2
6
10
covenants: agreements
diplomacy: negotiations
3
adequate: enough
4
armaments: military equipment
692
Chapter 22
impartial: fair
observance: following
7
sovereignty: who should rule
8
equitable: just
sovereignty: self-rule
validity: authority
11
impaired: damaged
12
readjustment: correction to
THE GRANGER COLLECTION, NEW YORK
should be righted, in order
that peace may once more
be made secure in the
interest of all.
12
IX. A readjustment of the
frontiers of Italy should be
effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
X. The peoples of AustriaHungary, whose place among
the nations we wish to see
safeguarded and assured,
should be accorded13 the
freest opportunity of
autonomous14 development.
XI. Rumania, Serbia, and
Montenegro should be
evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia
accorded free and secure access to the sea; and
the relations of the several Balkan states to
one another determined by friendly counsel15
along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity16 of the several
Balkan states should be entered into.
XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman
Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty,
but the other nationalities which are now
under Turkish rule should be assured an
undoubted17 security of life and an absolutely
unmolested18 opportunity of autonomous
development, and the Dardanelles should be
permanently opened as a free passage to the
ships and commerce of all nations under
international guarantees.
19
XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected
which should include the territories inhabited by
indisputably20 Polish populations, which should
be assured a free and secure access to the sea,
The Big Four; seated from left to right: Italian prime
minister Vittorio Orlando, British prime minister David
Lloyd George, French premier Georges Clemenceau,
and U.S. president Woodrow Wilson
and whose political and economic independence
and territorial integrity should be guaranteed
by international covenant.
XIV. A general association of nations must be
formed under specific covenants for the
purpose of affording21 mutual guarantees of
political independence and territorial integrity
to great and small states alike.
Analyzing Primary Sources
1. What freedoms does President Wilson want to
guarantee?
2. What countries does President Wilson want to
be created or restored?
3. Do you think the Fourteen Points were fair to all
the countries involved? Explain your answer.
13
16
19
14
17
20
accorded: given
autonomous: independent
15
counsel: agreement
integrity: completeness
undoubted: beyond dispute
18
unmolested: unquestioned
erected: created
indisputably: without question
21
affording: providing
World War I
693
Chapter
Review
The Chapter at a Glance
Examine the visual summary of the chapter below. Then create three lists
explaining the reasons the United States entered World War I, how it prepared
for the war, and how the war ended.
War in the Trenches
World War I begins
in July 1914 when
Austria-Hungary
declares war on
Serbia.
The United States enters the war in 1917.
It prepares for war with the Selective
Service Act, a publicity campaign, food
drives, and the War Industries Board.
Trench warfare in
Europe involves
new weapons
such as airplanes,
machine guns,
poison gas,
and tanks.
In July 1918 the
Allies stop
Germany's last
major offensive.
An armistice
goes into effect
in November.
Identifying People and Ideas
Section 5 (Pages 686–691)
342–347)
Use the following terms or people in historically
significant sentences.
1. nationalism
6. National War Labor Board
2. Allied Powers
7. American Expeditionary Force
3. stalemate
8. Second Battle of the Marne
4. Sussex pledge 9. reparations
5. George Creel 10. Treaty of Versailles
You Be the Historian—
Reviewing Themes
Understanding Main Ideas
Section 1 (Pages 668–671)
324–327)
1. What conditions and events led to the outbreak
of World War I?
Section 2 (Pages 672–677)
328–333)
2. Why did President Wilson try to keep the United
States out of World War I?
Section 3 (Pages 678–681)
334–337)
3. How did the war affect African Americans and
women?
4. How did Americans at home contribute to the
war effort?
Section 4 (Pages 682–685)
338–341)
5. How did U.S. forces help the Allies win
the war?
694 Chapter 22
The Allies force harsh
postwar conditions
on Germany. The
Treaty of Versailles
reflects some of
Wilson's Fourteen
Points, including the
League of Nations.
6. How did the Treaty of Versailles reflect Wilson’s
Fourteen Points?
7. How and why did American opinions differ on
U.S. participation in the League of Nations?
1. Citizenship How did the United States attempt
to increase support for World War I at home?
2. Global Relations How did the assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand start a world war?
3. Science, Technology & Society Explain how the
airplane and the machine gun changed fighting
in World War I.
Thinking Critically
1. Analyzing Information How did nationalism
and imperialism contribute to tensions in Europe
before World War I?
2. Evaluating Which one of the Fourteen Points
described in the chapter do you think is the most
important? Explain your answer.
3. Supporting a Point of View Do you think
that Germany should have been held totally
responsible for the cost of World War I?
Explain your answer.
Interpreting Maps
Study the map below. Then use the information on
the map to help you answer the questions that follow.
N
W
American advance,
Sept. 12–16, 1918
E
S
American advance,
Sept. 26–Nov. 11, 1918
BELGIUM
Allied Powers forces
LUXEMBOURG
918
1, 1
.1
ov
fN
eo
Lin
ce
sti
mi
Ar
go
nn
e
River
Ar
GERMANY
Verdun
st
Mo
se
l
re
r
ve
Ri
Meuse
Fo
FRANCE
le
Metz
Saint-Mihiel
0
0
15
15
30 Miles
30 Kilometers
Polyconic Projection
U.S. Advances
A
i
Adduring World War I,
Sept.–Nov. 1918
1. Which of the following statements correctly
describes the U.S. advances from September
to November 1918?
a. Neither U.S. advance reached the
armistice line.
b. Both advances crossed the Moselle River.
c. The advance ending in November covered
more territory.
d. The advance from Saint-Mihiel crossed the
armistice line first.
2. Based on the map and your knowledge of the
period, how might a reporter on the western
front have described and compared these
advances?
Analyzing Primary Sources
Read the following quotation by John Maynard
Keynes describing the French countryside after the
war, then answer the questions.
“The horror and desolation of war was made
visible to the sight on an extraordinary scale.
. . . The completeness of the destruction was
evident. For mile after mile nothing was left.
No building was habitable and no field fit for
the plow. . . . One devastated area was exactly
like another—a heap of rubble, a morass [an
overwhelming mass] of shell-holes, and a tangle
of wire. . . .
”
3. Which of the following statements best describes
Keynes’s point of view?
a. He is shocked by the level of destruction
caused by the war.
b. He is impressed by the military power of
the Allies.
c. He is relieved that the war mainly damaged
cities.
d. none of the above
4. Based on this quotation and your knowledge of
the period, how do you think Europe’s economy
was affected by the war?
5. What would you have suggested that the United
States do to help Europe recover from the war?
Alternative Assessment
Building Your Portfolio
Interdisciplinary
Connection to Art
Create three posters to promote the war effort
on the home front. You might develop posters for
recruiting, for the war effort in the United States,
or for agencies such as the Food Administration.
Write a paragraph explaining each poster. Then
explain how each poster would have helped
the war effort.
Internet Activity: go.hrw.com
keyword: SC5 CF22
Choose a topic on World War I to:
• Understand how the weaknesses of the
Versailles Treaty led to future conflict.
• Create a propaganda poster supporting either
the Allied Powers or the Central Powers.
• Write a biography of Woodrow Wilson.
World War I
695