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The Reformation
Background to the Reformation:
The Plague
Deterioration of the Church
Mysticism
The Language of Mysticism
Grass roots Moral Reform
Earliest Beginnings of Nationalism
The Plague
The bubonic plague ravaged Europe between 1349-50. Fearful and repentant flagellants
expressed deep religiosity.
Perceived Deterioration of the Church
The reformers were seen as heretics by the Catholic Church and survived only because the
Church was perceived by some to be in a state of decay. There was a long history of reform and
controversy which had intensified since the 14th century:
10th century: (Cluny Reform Movement of 910 inspired monasticism)
11th century: The Investiture Conflict (a struggle between Church and State)
14th century: The Babylonian Captivity (In 1303 the new pope - a Frenchman Clement
V - moved the papacy from Rome to Avignon, France)
14th century: The Great Schism of 1378-1417 (two popes and two colleges of cardinals
reigned for 40 years. The French sided with Avignon; the English &
German princes sided with Rome)
16th century: decline of monasticism evident
Mysticism
Mystics focused on obtaining an intimate, direct relationship to God, and were far less
concerned with theological issues. The desired goal of mysticism was the perfect union between
the soul/person and God. From the perspective of the Church, the desire for a “purer, truer”
Christianity bordered on heresy. This conflicted with the Catholic Church which emphasized
everyday practices such as the mass, sacraments, etc.
The Language of Mysticism
According to German mysticism, God was beyond comprehension, and therefore language was
incapable of expressing God. Therefore the language used by German mystics tended to say
what God is not (i.e. not spiritual, not material, not in this time, not eternal, etc.), rather than
what God is. The philosophical and metaphorical richness of the German language is indebted to
German mysticism, and the poetic use of German was greatly enriched by this (e.g. God as the
sun of justice, the bridegroom of the soul, etc.).
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Grass Roots Moral Reform
Northern Europe: the Beguines - men & women who lived in Christian communities similar to
orders, but which were not under control of the Church. They were independent, self-supporting,
and closely connected to the Franciscan or Dominican friars.
England: John Wiclif - an Oxford scholar who claimed that God and Scripture alone were the
sole sources of spiritual authority
Germany: Meister Eckhart - a university professor in Paris and popular preacher who wrote
theological treatises in Latin but gave sermons in the vernacular. Condemned as a heretic for
claiming that God is of an unknowable nature.
Germany: Johannes Tauler - a popular preacher of sermons in the vernacular
John Huss (1369-1415) was a priest and professor at the university in Prague (Bohemia), at the
time still the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. He wished to return the Church to the simplicity
of early Christianity. Because he preached in the vernacular (vs Latin) and denied
transubstantiation (whereby the bread and wine of the Eucharist become the body and blood
of Christ in Catholic theology), he was excommunicated, found guilty of heresy and burned at
the stake.
Earliest Beginnings of Nationalism
Almost at the same time the Reformation ignited in central Europe, the first “state” churches
appeared. By 1520 both Spain and France had been allowed to appoint their own bishops. In
Germany the papacy was being increasingly perceived as a foreign entity which drained wealth
“Germany” of its wealth. John Huss (Bohemia) was not only anti-papacy, he was also antiGerman.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Luther was educated by the Brethren of Common Life who emphasized strict Christian piety
(imitatio christi). He attended a Latin school and then the University of Erfurt in 1501 (known as
the “New Prague).
In 1502 Luther became an Augustinian monk 1502; in 1507 an ordained priest. In 1510 he
visited Rome and was devastated by what he saw. In 1512 Luther received his doctorate in
Theology from the University of Wittenberg.
“My heart trembled when I thought of God’s grace. The name of Jesus frightened me, and when
I looked at Him crucified, He appeared to me as a flash of lightening.”
Influence of mysticism led Luther to doubt the merits of good works in general (e.g. the
veneration of saints, sacraments, pilgrimages, indulgences, fasting almsgiving, etc.). In addition,
as both professor and priest, he saw a problem with the current practice of granting indulgences.
Indulgences had traditionally been granted as penance for good works. When Pope Leo X was
elected in 1513 (“As God has seen fit to give us the papacy, let us enjoy it.”), John Tetzel was
sent north to sell Papal Letters (indulgences) in order to pay for the completion of St. Peter’s in
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Rome. Tetzel claimed, however, that by purchasing indulgences, one’s sins were forgiven.
Luther provoked a debate to combat the sale of indulgences:
Ninety-Five Theses on Indulgences (1517)
Luther believed in original sin. His dilemma was the following: If we are born sinners, and have
not simply “fallen” into sin, how can we ever be certain of salvation? At issue was God’s justice.
Luther’s found an answer to his question in the Book of Romans (1:17): “The just shall live by
faith alone.” All we need to do to ensure salvation, he argued, was to simply place our trust in
God’s grace alone. Although a simple formulation, it struck at the heart of Catholic theology by
implying that the entire institutional apparatus of the Catholic Church - from the papacy to the
local priest - were really not necessary. Luther was called upon to recant his beliefs:
April 1518:
Aug 1518:
June 1519:
Disputation in Heidelberg; protected by the Elector Frederick of Saxony
(Frederick the Wise)
Disputation in Augsburg (as opposed to in Rome) - again thanks to Frederick the
Wise
Disputation in Leipzig
Luther's Writings
On the Papacy in Rome (1520)
In this work Luther formulates a new definition of what is meant by the “Church.” Christians are
marked by baptism & communion (Eucharist) alone, he argues, and states that all Christians (not
just the clergy) have the “power of the keys.”
Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation on the Improvement of the
Christian Estate (1520)
Here Luther calls upon the German princes to assist him in his fight with Rome.
On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520)
In this work Luther argues that only three sacraments needed (baptism, communion, penance), as
opposed to the seven required by Catholic theology. In the end, only two: baptism and
communion.
On the Liberty of a Christian (1520)
Written in both German and Latin, this work represents an attack on the Catholic doctrine of the
necessity of “good works”: “Good works never make a good, devout man, but a good, devout
man does good and devout works.”(...) “That is Christian liberty -- we no longer need any works
(=”good works,” m.f.) to attain true devotion (= to be assured of salvation, m.f.).” Luther is
given 60 days to recant or face excommunication.
Against the Exerable Bull of the Anti-Christ (1520)
Written in both German and Latin to rally together his supports against Rome: “Who should be
surprised if princes, nobles, and laymen should beat the pope, priests and monks over the head
and drive them out of the country?”
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Luther burned the Papal Bull, December 10, 1520 at the University of Wittenberg (“As thou hast
destroyeth the truth of God, so the Lord today destroyeth thee, by means of this fire. Amen.”),
thus marking the symbolic beginning of the Reformation. He was excommunicated on January 3,
1521. In 1524 Luther dropped out of the Augustinian Order, married, and had 6 children.
The Edict of Worms (1521) declared Luther a heretic and banned him from the Holy Roman
Empire, making anyone who protected him a criminal. For a year Luther hid as “Squire Jörg” in
the Wartburg Castle, where he translated the New Testament from Greek into German. The
following year he translated the Old Testament from Hebrew into German. The complete
translation of Luther’s Bible, however, did not appear in print until 1534, long after the first
battles of the Reformation were won.
In an effort to stop the spread of the Reformation, Emperor Charles V banned the establishment
of any new independent churches within the Holy Roman Empire in 1529. Between 1531 and
1546 German princes rose up in protest, thus giving us today the term Protestant Reformation.
Consequences of the Reformation
The language of Luther’s Bible (its syntax, structure and vocabulary), would eventually bring
together the many dialects of Germany into a unified whole, and contribute to the long, tedious
process of nation-building. Important Latin religious texts could now be translated into German,
and German would become the language of worship (as opposed to Latin).
In northern Germany, where Lutheranism was adopted, church property was seized by the
princes and a wholesale destruction of Catholic art objects occurred. Since all Christians were
now priests (i.e. possessed the “power of the keys”) , the institution of priesthood was no longer
necessary. The monastic orders were also dissolved, saints or relics no longer would be
worshipped, and only baptism and the Eucharist were retained as necessary sacraments.
The Reformation of the 16th century succeeded for a number of reasons: Luther was supported
by powerful German princes and enjoyed support from cities (except Cologne). Financial
opportunities awaited princes who supported Luther. The printing press and moveable type made
possible the vast distribution of Luther’s writings. Sixteenth century northern Europe was ripe
for reform, and Luther demonstrated the leadership to consolidate prevailing sentiment.
Peasant Wars of 1524/25
Peasants of southwestern Germany applied Luther’s theology to politics. Their ”Twelve
Articles” of 1525 were based on the notion of equality of all people before God - an idea
influenced by the notion of a priesthood of all believers. Luther responded with a violent attack
on the peasants.
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Radical Anabaptists
Anabaptists were noted for their opposition to infant baptism (“ana” meaning” again”). The
Anabaptists fled Switzerland and Austria where they had bee persecuted by the Habsburgs and
settled in Westphalia (northwestern Germany).
They briefly ruled the city of Münster in 1534-35, where they abolished private property, money,
and marriage. Under the leadership of Menno Simmons (1492-1559), Anabaptists traveled to
Holland, where they would be known as the Mennonites. From Holland they emigrated to the
New World where they are known today as the Amish.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Zwingli was a Swiss humanist and theologian who was preaching reform by 1519, in Zurich. His
main difference from Luther had to do with meaning of the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist). For
Zwingli, the Eucharist had only symbolic meaning as ceremony which commemorated the life
and death of Christ. Also unlike Luther, Zwingli opposed to music in Church.
John Calvin (1509-64)
Upon Zwingli’s death, the reform movement moved from Zurich to Geneva. John Calvin also
believed in salvation by faith alone as with Luther and that the Bible as the sole authority in
religious matters. But Calvin added the notion of predestination. His followers had to adhere to
a very strict code of moral duties. According to Calvin, God’s omnipotence was most important:
Christians must do as God will because God wills it.
In Calvinism we find the first theological praise for the new banking system of western
capitalism, of capital accumulation and the creation of wealth.
Calvinism spread to France (French protestants were known as Huguenots) where it was given
equality with Catholicism in 1598 by the Edict of Nantes. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked
in 1685, the Huguenots were invited and recruited to come to Berlin. Calvinism also spread to
Holland where it helped found the Reformed Church, to Scotland where it helped establish the
Presbyterian Church, and to England where Calvinism became known as Puritanism.
1555 - The Peace of Augsburg
The Peace of Augsburg recognized the personal right of each territorial prince to chose between
Lutheranism or Catholicism as the officially sanctioned religion of the state.
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The Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation)
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) was the founder of the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the
Jesuits). The Jesuits declared complete subservience to the Pope and Catholicism. Their goal was
to win back areas of France, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland which had been lost to
the Protestant Reformation.
Council(s) Of Trent (1545-47; 1551-52; 1562-63)
The Catholic Church defended the traditional dogmas of Catholicism throughout the Councils of
Trent. The Church reaffirmed papal supremacy, reaffirmed the necessity of good works and
faith, reaffirmed the seven sacraments, the doctrine of transubstantiation and the existence of
Purgatory. Latin was retained as the language of worship (not German), celibacy for priests was
reaffirmed, and no individual interpretation of the Bible was allowed. The Councils underscored
the view that the authority of the Church is derived from both Biblical Scripture and Church
tradition. In 1564 an Index of Prohibited Books appeared.
The Reformation and Art
The Reformation resulted in great destruction of Church art which had evolved since the Middle
Ages, and disrupted traditional forms of patronage. New directions and a new market for art
works appeared which matched middle class, rather than religious, interests (e.g. portraiture,
genre scenes of nature and everyday life).
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