Download Carbohydrates, Lectures 16-17 Quadrant - vtu-nptel

MODULE 8: Carbohydrates, Lectures 16-17
Quadrant -2
Animations:
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Page 1 of 15
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Page 2 of 15
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Page 3 of 15
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Page 4 of 15
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Use these Biology and Biochemistry videos The Chemistry of Carbohydrates, Lipids
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Page 5 of 15
Quadrant – 3
Multiple choice questions – chose the correct answer
1. A simple carbohydrate called monosaccharide have a general formula
a) (CH 2 O) n where n is three or more.
b) 6(CHO)n
c) (C 6 H 12 O 6 )n
d) None of the above
2. The molecular formula for glucose is C 6 H 12 O 6 . What would be the molecular formula for
a polymer made by linking ten glucose molecules together by dehydration synthesis?
a) C 60 H 120 O 60 .
b) (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) 10 .
c) C 60 H 102 O 51 .
d) C 60 H 100 O 50 .
3. Monosaccharides, such as ribose, fructose, glucose, and mannose differ significantly in
a) the positions of their carbonyl groups.
b) their diastereomeric configurations.
c) their number of carbon atoms.
d) All the above
4. Which of the following is an example of a storage polysaccharide made by animals?
a) cellulose.
b) glycogen.
c) amylopectin.
d) starch.
5. Cellulose, a b(14)-linked glucose polysaccharide, differs from starch in that starch is
a) a
->6)-linked manose polysaccharide
(1
b) a
->6)-linked glucose polysaccharide.
(1
c) an
->6)-linked glucose polysaccharide.
(1
d) an
->7)-linked glucose polysaccharide.
(1
6. The glycosidic bond
a) joins glucose and fructose to form sucrose.
b) Joins two amino acids
c) Joins two nucleotides
d) None of them are correct
Page 6 of 15
7. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins all contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Which one
also contains nitrogen?
a) Carbohydrates
b) lipids
c) proteins
d) all of the above
8. The main function of carbohydrates in the diet is to:
a) enable chemical reactions.
b) promote growth and repair of tissues.
c) supply energy.
d) maintain water balance.
9. A kilocalorie (kcal) is a:
a) measure of fat weight
b) unit for expressing energy content in food
c) scientific instrument
d) term used to describe the amount of sugar and fat in a food
10. The building blocks of polysaccharides are:
a) amino acids.
b) fatty acids.
c) glucose units.
d) coenzymes.
11. Some examples for monosaccharide are:
a) Glucose
b) Galactose
c) Fructose
d) All the above
12. A common example for disaccharide is
a) Starch
b) Glycogen
c) Sucrose
d) Galactose
13. The most concentrated source of kcals of the following is:
a) starch.
b) protein.
c) alcohol.
d) sugar.
Page 7 of 15
14. The main component of plant cell wall is
a) Cellulose
b) Glycogen
c) Pepdoglycan
d) Lignin
15. Polysaccharides are constructed by joining monosaccharide units together by
a) Phosphodiester bonds
b) Glycosidic bonds
c) Hydrogen bonds
d) None of the above
16. Nutrients that supply energy are:
a) fats and vitamins.
b) minerals and water.
c) minerals and vitamins.
d) fats and carbohydrates.
17. A sugar classified as a ketoseIf monosaccharide has hydroxyl function on all of the inner
atoms of the carbon chain.
b) If a monosaccharide has a carbonyl function on one of the inner atoms of the carbon
chain.
c) If monosaccharide has a double bonds in the inner atoms of the carbon chain
d) None of the above
State whether True or False:
1. The biological significance of carbohydrates is as energy sources in life’s processes.
2. Humans lack the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of Cellulose
3. Cellulose, a b(1->4)-linked glucose polysaccharide
4. The glycosidic bond joins glucose and fructose to form sucrose
5. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins all contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and
proteins also contains nitrogen
6. Cereals are a good sources of carbohydrate are
7. A kilocalorie (kcal) is a unit for expressing energy content in food.
8. Reducing sugars react with the amino acid lysine in a reaction called the Maillard
reaction.
9. The glucose molecules in the polymer are linked through glycosidic covalent bonds
10. Cellulose is the main structural component of plant cell walls and is the most
abundant carbohydrate on earth
11. Proteins are the predominant storage molecule in plants and provides the majority of
the food kilojoules consumed by people worldwide.
12. Isomers are identical in chemical composition but differ structurally
Page 8 of 15
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
1. A release of __________ from the ___________ lowers a high blood sugar
concentration.
2. Cleavage of amylose could yield ________________
3. Carbohydrates can be metabolized via the pathways ________________
4. The breakdown of a single glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvic acid is
called ________________
5. Lactic acid fermentation is also known as ___________________ respiration.
6. ________________ is the enzymatic formation of glycogen by the polymerization of
glucose molecules.
7. The cyclic process by which the oxidation of pyruvic acid is complete is termed the
_________________cycle
8. The _____________ are iron-containing pigments involved in the electron-transport
chain oxidation-reduction reactions along the cristae of the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
9. The utilization of energy from the electron-transport system to phosphorylate ADP to
form ATP in the presence of oxygen is called __________________________
10. The final electron acceptor within the electron transport chain is
__________________
11. _________________is the formation of fat, primarily in adipose tissues and in the
liver, when the concentration of blood glucose is elevated following a meal.
12. One gram of fat contains ___________ kilocalories of energy, compared to 4
kilocalories for a gram of carbohydrates or protein.
13. _________________ is the major energy source for the brain.
14. __________________ is an example of a storage polysaccharide made by animals
15. A function of carbohydrates in the diet is to _____________________
Assignments (questions and answers):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Discuss briefly on the importance of carbohydrates
Explain on the classification of carbohydrates
Discuss briefly on important reactions of carbohydrates
Anomeric Forms of Glucose
Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Page 9 of 15
Quadrant – 4
Supplementary reading:
1. Matthews, C. E.; K. E. Van Holde; K. G. Ahern (1999) Biochemistry. 3rd edition.
Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-3066-6
2. Pigman, Ward; Horton, D. (1972). "Chapter 1: Stereochemistry of the
Monosaccharides". In Pigman and Horton. The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and
Biochemistry Vol 1A (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 1–67.
3. Eldra Pearl Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W. Martin; Cengage Learning (2004).
Biology. google.books.com. p. 52. ISBN 978-0534278281.
4. Long Island University (May 29, 2013). "The Chemistry of Carbohydrates".
brooklyn.liu.edu.
5. Purdue University (May 29, 2013). "Carbohydrates: The Monosaccharides".
purdue.edu.
6. Flitsch, Sabine L.; Ulijn, Rein V (2003). "Sugars tied to the spot". Nature 421 (6920):
219–20. doi:10.1038/421219a. PMID 12529622.
7. Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), Carbohydrates in human nutrition,
chapter 1. ISBN 92-5-104114-8.
8. Jenkins, David; Alexandra L. Jenkins, Thomas M.S. Woleve, Lilian H. Thompson and
A. Venkat Rao (February 1986). "Simple and Complex Carbohydrates". Nutrition
Reviews 44 (2).
Wiki development on the course/other resources:
Carbohydrate - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen:oxygen ...
Oligosaccharide - Low-carbohydrate diet - Carbohydrate metabolism - Sugar
What are carbohydrates? What is glucose? - Medical News Today
www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161547.php
Nov 11, 2013 - There are four major classes of biomolecules - carbohydrates, proteins,
nucleotides, and lipids. Carbohydrates, or saccharides, are the most ...
Carbohydrates - Chemistry
www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/carbhyd.htm
As noted here, the formulas of many carbohydrates can be written as carbon hydrates,
Cn(H2O)n, hence their name. The carbohydrates are a major source of ...
Carbohydrates: MedlinePlus
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/carbohydrates.html
Carbohydrates are one of the main types of nutrients. They are the most important
source of energy for your body. Your digestive system changes carbohydrates ...
Page 10 of 15
Carbohydrates: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002469.htm
Function. The primary function of carbohydrates is to provide energy for the body,
especially the brain and the nervous system. An enzyme called amylase helps ...
What Is A Carbohydrate - wow.com
www.wow.com/What+Is+A+Carbohydrate
Search for What Is A Carbohydrate Look Up Quick Results Now!
Carbohydrates List - ask.com
www.ask.com/Carbohydrates+List
Search for Carbohydrates List Find Great Results on Ask.com!
Ask.com has 9,073 followers on Google+
Good Carbs, Bad Carbs: Understanding Natural and Refined ...
www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/carbohydrates
Are carbohydrates good or bad? The short answer is that they are both. Fortunately, it's
easy separate the good carbs from the bad carbs.
Carbohydrate | Define Carbohydrate at Dictionary.com
dictionary.reference.com/browse/carbohydrate
any of a class of organic compounds that are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones, or change to such substances on simple chemical transformations, ...
Carbohydrates - The Free Dictionary
www.thefreedictionary.com/Carbohydrates
car·bo·hy·drate (kär′bō-hī′drāt′). n. Any of a group of organic compounds that includes
sugars, starches, celluloses, and gums and serves as a major energy ...
carbohydrate - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com
www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/carbohydrate
The word carbohydrate refers to a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that is a
major source of energy for animals. Carbohydrates can be found in ...
Carbohydrates - YouTube ► 8:49► 8:49
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zm_DyD6FJ0
Nov 12, 2012 - Uploaded by Bozeman Science
Paul Andersen begins by explaining the structure and purpose of carbohydrates. He
describes and gives ...
Biomolecules The Carbohydrates - Wisc-Online.com
www.wisc-online.com/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP13104
Biomolecules The Carbohydrates. Advertisement. Learners read a brief introduction to
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The processes ...
Sugars & Polysaccharides
www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/sugar.htm
Carbohydrates - Sugars and Polysaccharides. Contents of this page: Introduction to
carbohydrates. Monosaccharides: nomenclature, stereochemistry, & cyclic ...
Reference Guide for Carbohydrates | SparkPeople
www.sparkpeople.com/resource/reference_carbohydrates.asp
The carbohydrate world can be very confusing. At times, carbohydrates are accused of
being the cause of gaining weight, while other times carbohydrates are ...
Page 11 of 15
Fats, Carbohydrates, Protein | FactMonster.com
www.factmonster.com › Science › Food
Carbohydrates are sugars that the body uses for energy. Simple carbohydrates, also
called simple sugars, provide the body with quick energy. They are found in ...
Carbohydrate - Merriam-Webster Online
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/carbohydrate
any one of various substances found in certain foods (such as bread, rice, and potatoes)
that provide your body with heat and energy and are made of carbon, ...
Carbohydrates - Chemical Structure (Page 1 of 3)
www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/carbohydrates.html
Chemical structure of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides (simple sugars), Chain and Ring
forms, Stereochemistry. The structure of Sugar Alcohols, Amino Sugars, ...
carbohydrate (biochemistry) -- Encyclopedia Britannica
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/94687/carbohydrate
carbohydrate, class of naturally occurring compounds and derivatives formed from
them. In the early part of the 19th century, substances such as wood, starch, ...
Solution to Quiz:
Chose the correct answer
1.
6.
A
2.
7.
B
3.
8.
D
4.
9.
B
5.
10.
B
A
C
C
B
C
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
D
C
A
A
B
16.
17.
State whether True or False
1. T 5. T 9.
T
2. T 6. F 10 T
3. T 7. T 11 F
4. T 8. F 12 T
Fill in the Blanks
1. Insulin---pancreas
2. Glucose
3. Glycolysis
4. Glycolysis
5. Anaerobic
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
Glycogenesis
TCA
Cytochrome
Oxidative phosphorylation
O2
Page 12 of 15
11
12
13
14
15
Lipogenesis
9.5
Glucose
Glycogen
Provide energy
D
B
Answers are only indicative. Expand on the outline given:
1. Discuss briefly on the importance of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living
organisms. They originate as products of photosynthesis, an endothermic reductive
condensation of carbon dioxide requiring light energy and the pigment chlorophyll.
n CO 2 + n H 2 O + energy
C n H 2n O n + n O 2
As noted here, the formulas of many carbohydrates can be written as carbon hydrates,
C n (H 2 O) n , hence their name. The carbohydrates are a major source of metabolic energy,
both for plants and for animals that depend on plants for food. Aside from the sugars and
starches that meet this vital nutritional role, carbohydrates also serve as a structural
material (cellulose), a component of the energy transport compound ATP, recognition
sites on cell surfaces, and one of three essential components of DNA and RNA.
Carbohydrates are called saccharides or, if they are relatively small, sugars.
2. Explain on the classification of carbohydrates
Several classifications of carbohydrates have proven useful, and are outlined in the
following table.
Complexity
Size
C=O
Function
Reactivity
Simple
Carbohydrates
monosaccharides
Complex Carbohydrates
disaccharides, oligosaccharides
& polysaccharides
HexoseC 6
Tetrose
Pentose
Heptose
C 4 sugars C 5 sugars
sugars
etc
C 7 sugars
Aldose
sugars having an aldehyde function or an acetal
equivalent.
Ketose
sugars having a ketone function or an acetal
equivalent.
Reducing
sugars oxidized by Tollens' reagent (or Benedict's or
Fehling's reagents).
Non-reducing
sugars not oxidized by Tollens' or other reagents
Page 13 of 15
3. Discuss briefly on important reactions of carbohydrates
Emil Fischer made use of several key reactions in the course of his carbohydrate studies.
Oxidation: Sugars may be classified as reducing or non-reducing based on their
reactivity with Tollens', Benedict's or Fehling's reagents. If a sugar is oxidized by
these reagents it is called reducing, since the oxidant (Ag(+) or Cu(+2)) is reduced in the
reaction, as evidenced by formation of a silver mirror or precipitation of cuprous oxide.
The Tollens' test is commonly used to detect aldehyde functions; and because of the
facile interconversion of ketoes and aldose under the basic conditions of this test, ketoses
such as fructose also react and are classified as reducing sugars.
4. Anomeric Forms of Glucose
Fischer's brilliant elucidation of the configuration of glucose did not remove all
uncertainty concerning its structure. Two different crystalline forms of glucose were
reported in 1895. Each of these gave all the characteristic reactions of glucose, and when
dissolved in water equilibrated to the same mixture. This equilibration takes place over a
period of many minutes, and the change in optical activity that occurs is called
mutarotation.
5. Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
As noted above, the preferred structural form of many monosaccharides may be that of a
cyclic hemiacetal. Five and six-membered rings are favored over other ring sizes
because of their low angle and eclipsing strain. Cyclic structures of this kind are
termed furanose (five-membered) or pyranose (six-membered), reflecting the ring size
relationship to the common heterocyclic compounds furan and pyran shown on the right.
Ribose, an important aldopentose, commonly adopts a furanose structure, as shown in
the following illustration. By convention for the D-family, the five-membered furanose
ring is drawn in an edgewise projection with the ring oxygen positioned away from the
viewer. The anomeric carbon atom (colored red here) is placed on the right. The upper
bond to this carbon is defined as beta, the lower bond then is alpha.
The cyclic pyranose forms of various monosaccharides are often drawn in a flat
projection known as a Haworth formula. As with the furanose ring, the anomeric
carbon is placed on the right with the ring oxygen to the back of the edgewise view. In
the D-family, the alpha and beta bonds have the same orientation defined for the
furanose ring (beta is up & alpha is down). These Haworth formulas are convenient for
displaying stereochemical relationships, but do not represent the true shape of the
molecules.
6. Disaccharides
When the alcohol component of a glycoside is provided by a hydroxyl function on
another monosaccharide, the compound is called a disaccharide. Four examples of
disaccharides composed of two glucose units.
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7. Polysaccharides
As the name implies, polysaccharides are large high-molecular weight molecules
constructed by joining monosaccharide units together by glycosidic bonds. They are
sometimes called glycans. The most important compounds in this class, cellulose, starch
and glycogen are all polymers of glucose. Over half of the total organic carbon in the
earth's biosphere is in cellulose. Cotton fibers are essentially pure cellulose, and the
wood of bushes and trees is about 50% cellulose. Cellulose is commonly accompanied
by a lower molecular weight, branched, amorphous polymer called hemicellulose. In
contrast to cellulose, hemicellulose is structurally weak and is easily hydrolyzed by
dilute acid or base. Also, many enzymes catalyze its hydrolysis. Hemicelluloses are
composed of many D-pentose sugars, with xylose being the major component. Mannose
and mannuronic acid are often present, as well as galactose and galacturonic acid.
Starch is a polymer of glucose, found in roots, rhizomes, seeds, stems, tubers and corms
of plants, as microscopic granules having characteristic shapes and sizes. Most animals,
including humans, depend on these plant starches for nourishment. The structure of
starch is more complex than that of cellulose. The intact granules are insoluble in cold
water, but grinding or swelling them in warm water causes them to burst. The released
starch consists of two fractions. About 20% is a water soluble material called amylose.
Molecules of amylose are linear chains of several thousand glucose units joined by alpha
C-1 to C-4 glycoside bonds. Amylose solutions are actually dispersions of hydrated
helical micelles. The majority of the starch is a much higher molecular weight substance,
consisting of nearly a million glucose units, and called amylopectin. Molecules of
amylopectin are branched networks built from C-1 to C-4 and C-1 to C-6 glycoside
links, and are essentially water insoluble. The branching in this diagram is exaggerated,
since on average, branches only occur every twenty five glucose units. Hydrolysis of
starch, usually by enzymatic reactions, produces a syrupy liquid consisting largely of
glucose. When cornstarch is the feedstock, this product is known as corn syrup. It is
widely used to soften texture, add volume, prohibit crystallization and enhance the flavor
of foods. Glycogen is the glucose storage polymer used by animals. It has a structure
similar to amylopectin, but is even more highly branched (about every tenth glucose
unit). The degree of branching in these polysaccharides may be measured by enzymatic
or chemical analysis.
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