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10/28/16
Chapter 37
The StormySixties,
1963–1973
Presented by:
Mr. Anderson, M.Ed., J.D.
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
• LyndonBaines Johnson (LBJ):
– Became presidentuponJFK'sassassination
– SenttoCongressin1937atage29
– FDRwashispolitical“Daddy,” Johnsonclaimed
• LBJstronglysupportedNewDealmeasures
• WhenhelostabidforSenate(1941),LBJlearnedthat
liberalpoliticsdidnotwinelectionsinTexas
• WonaSenateseatin1948byshiftinghispoliciesto
rightandbyaquestionable87-votemargin—hence
nickname“LandsideLyndon”
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
(cont.)
• InSenate, Johnson developed into master
wheeler-dealer:
– Became Democraticmajorityleader in1954
• Usedwhatwascalledthe“Johnsontreatment”—
intimidatingdisplayofbackslapping,flesh-pressing,
andarm-twistingthatoverborefriendsandfoesalike
• Hisegoandvanitywerelegendary
• Aspresident,heshreddedconservativecolorationof
hisSenateyearstoreveallatentliberalunderneath
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
(cont.)
• Congress passedCivil Rights Actof1964:
– Bannedracialdiscriminationinmostprivate
facilitiesopentopublic
• Includingtheaters,hospitals,restaurants
– Strengthenedfederal government'spowerto
endsegregationinschoolsandpublicplaces
– Title VIIbarred employersfromdiscriminatingon
raceornationalorigininhiring
– Empowered EqualEmploymentOpportunity
Commission(EEOC)toenforcelaw
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
(cont.)
– Title VIIpassedwithgenderclauseintact
• Provedtobepowerfulinstrumentoffederallyenforcedgenderequality
– Johnson(1965)issuedexecutiveorderrequiring
allfederal contractorstotakeaffirmativeaction
againstdiscrimination
• Johnson alsopushedthrough Congress:
– Kennedy'sstalledtaxbill
– Proposalsforbillion-dollar“WaronPoverty”
I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
(cont.)
• Concerns about povertyraisedbyMichael
Harrington's TheOtherAmerica (1962):
– Revealed that20%ofpopulation,andover40%
ofblackpopulation,sufferedpoverty
• WaronPovertypartofLBJ's GreatSociety:
– Sweeping New Deal-styledomesticreforms
• Targetedremainingpocketsofpoverty
• Majornewinvestmentsineducationandarts
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964
• Election of1964:
– Johnson'snominationaforegoneconclusion
• ChosenbyacclamationinAtlanticCity
• Democratsstoodfoursquareonmostliberalplatform
sinceTruman'sFairDealdays
– Republicans
• MetinSanFrancisco,nominatedSenatorBarry
Goldwater,arock-ribbedconservative
• Stagesetforhistoricclashofpoliticalprinciples
II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin
1964(cont.)
• Goldwater'sforcestrouncedmoderate“easternestablishment”
• Goldwaterattacked:
– Federal income tax, social security system, TVA
– Civil rights legislation, nuclear test-ban treaty
– Most loudly, the Great Society
• Hisnominationreflectedgrowingconservativemovement
– Gathered strength in mushrooming middle-class suburbs ofSunbelt
– Led byWilliam F.Buckley and Young Americans for Freedom
– Well-received by white southerners angry atCivil Rights Act of 1964
• Democrats' attackonGoldwater:
– Exploited image of Goldwater as trigger-happy cowboy
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II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin
1964(cont.)
– Johnson'simageasresolutestatesman
• SeizeduponTonkinGulfepisodeinAugust1964:
– Covert U.S.help to South Vietnamese raids on N.Vietnam
– LBJ publically called alleged attacks “unprovoked”
– Ordered “limited” retaliatory air raid
– Claimed he sought “no wider war”
– Got Congress to pass all-purpose Tonkin Gulf Resolution:
» Congress abdicated war-declaring powers
» Handed president ablank checkto use further forcein
Southeast Asia
II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin
1964(cont.)
• Election results:
– VotersflockedtoJohnsonbecause:
• FondnessforKennedylegacy
• FaithinGreatSocietypromises
• FearofGoldwater
– Count:
• Popularvote:
– Johnson—43,129, 566; Goldwater—27,178 ,188
• Electoralcount:
– Johnson's 486 to 52 forGoldwater (see Map 37.1)
Map 37-1 p886
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II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin
1964(cont.)
• Goldwater:
• CarriedonlyhisnativeArizonaandfivestatesinSouth
• SouthtraditionallyDemocraticbutnowracially
restless
• Johnson:
• Recordbreaking61%ofpopularvotesweptlopsided
DemocraticmajoritiesintobothhousesofCongress
III.TheGreatSocietyCongress
– Johnson'swintemporarilysmashedconservative
congressionalcoalitionofsouthernDemocrats
andnorthernRepublicans
– RoadopenforGreatSocietyreforms:
• LBJhelpedbygrowingeconomy
• WaronPoverty:
– Doubled appropriation ofOffice of Economic Opportunity to
$2 billion
– Granted more than $1 billion toredevelop Appalachia
• Createdtwonewdepartments:
» Department of Transportation
» Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
III.TheGreatSocietyCongress
(cont.)
– Named first black cabinet secretary in nation's history—
respected economist Robert C.Weaver—to HUD
• EstablishedNationalEndowmentsfortheArtsandfor
theHumanities:
– Designed to lift level of American cultural life
– BigFourlegislative achievementscrownedLBJ's
GreatSocietyprograms:
• Aidtoeducation
– To avoid separation of church and state issue, LBJ awarded
aid directly to students
» Signed bill in humble one-room Texas school-house he
attended as a child
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress
(cont.)
• MedicareforelderlyandMedicaidforpoor:
– Created “entitlements”
» Rights for certain categories of Americans in perpetuity
» Without need for repeated congressional approval
– Part of spreading “rights revolution” that helped millions, but also
created long-term financial problems for federal government
• Immigrationreform:
– Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished “nationalorigins” quota system in place since 1921 (see Chap. 30)
– Doubled number of immigrants allowed to enter annually to
290,000
– For first time, set limits on immigrants from Western Hemisphere
(120,000)
III.TheGreatSocietyCongress
(cont.)
– Provided for admission of close relatives of U.S.citizens,
outside numerical limits
» 100,000 people per year took advantage of “family
unification” provision in decades after 1965
– Source of immigration shifted from Europe to Latin America
and Asia
– GreatSocietyprogramscame inforpolitical
attacksinlateryears:
• Conservativeschargedbillionsspentfor“social
engineering” wasted
• Yetpovertyleveldeclinedinensuringdecade(see
Figure37.1)
p887
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress
(cont.)
• Medicaredramaticallyreducedpovertyamongelderly
• ProjectHeadStart—sharplyimprovededucational
performanceofunderprivilegedyouth
• GreatSocietyprogramsreducedinfantmortalityratesin
minoritycommunities
Figur e 37-1 p888
IV.BattlingforBlackRights
• VotingRights Actof1965:
– OneofAmerica'smostpersistentevils—racial
discrimination
• CivilRightsActof1964:
– Gavefederal government more muscle to enforce schooldesegregation orders
– And to prohibit racial discrimination in public
accommodations and employment
• Problemofvotingremained:
– Mississippi: only 5% of eligible blacks registered to vote
– Similar throughout South
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IV.BattlingforBlackRights
(cont.)
– Ballot-denying devices: poll tax, literacy tests, barefaced
intimidation
– Mississippi required names of prospective black registrants be
published for two weeks in local newspapers—virtual ly
guaranteed economic reprisals, or worse
• 1964:votingbecomechiefgoalofblackmovement
– Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified January 1964, abolished poll
taxin federal elections (see Appendix)
– Freedom Summer 1964: blacks joined with whites in massive
voter-registration drive in Mississippi
» InJune, one black and two white civil rights workers
murdered
» Mississippi officials refused to prosecute those responsible
IV.BattlingforBlackRights
(cont.)
• August:integratedMississippiFreedomDemocratic
partydelegationdeniedseatsatDemocraticconvention
• Early1965,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,resumedvoterregistrationcampaigninSelma,Alabama:
– 50% of city's population black, but only 1% of its voters
– A Unitarian minister killed
– Few days later, awhite Detroit woman murdered by Klansmen
IV.BattlingforBlackRights
(cont.)
– JohnsonshepherdedthroughCongresslandmark
VotingRightsActof1965;signedintolawAugust6
• Outlawedliteracytests
• Sentfederalvoterregistrarsintoseveralsouthernstates
• Overtimebroughtdramaticchangetosouthernpolitics
andbusinesses
• Soonblacksbegantomigrateinto Southforfirsttime
sinceemancipation
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p889
V.BlackPower
• VotingRights Actof1965:
– Lastmajorlegislative victoryofsouthern-focused,
integrationist,nonviolentcivilrightsmovement
– IncreasedfocusonstrugglesinurbanNorthagainst
discriminationandpolicebrutality
• FivedaysafterLBJsignedVotingRightsAct,bloodyriot
eruptedinWatts,ablackghettoinLosAngeles
– 31 blacks and 3whites killed; more than athousand people
injured; hundreds ofbuildings charred and gutted
• Heraldedshifttomilitancy,radicalism,andseparatism
V.BlackPower(cont.)
• Leadership ofMalcolm X:
– BornMalcolmLittle,hewasinspiredbymilitant
blacknationalistsinNationofIslam
• LikeNation'sfounder—ElijahMuhammed(bornElijah
Poole),Malcolmchangedhissurnametoadvertiselost
AfricanidentityinwhiteAmerica
• MalcolmXtrumpetedblackseparatism
• LaterbrokewithElijahMuhammed'sseparatism;
movedtowardmainstreamIslam
• Early1965,killedbyNationofIslamgunmen
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V.BlackPower(cont.)
• Socialist BlackPanther party used “citizens'
patrols” toresist police brutality
• In1966, StokelyCarmichael, SNCC leader:
• BegantopreachdoctrineofBlackPower
• LikeGarveyof1920s(seeChap.30),Carmichael
breathedseparatistmeaningintoconceptofBlack
Power
– Emphasized African American distinctiveness
– Promoted “Afro” hairstyles and dress
– Shed “white” names for new African identities
– Demanded black studies programs in education
V.BlackPower(cont.)
• 1967:moreriots inblackurban ghettos
– Newark, New Jersey(killed25people)
– Detroit,Michigan(killed43people)
• AsinWatts(1965),rioterstorchedneighborhoods
• Attackedpoliceofficersandevenfirefighters
– RiotsangeredmanywhiteAmericans, who
threatened toretaliate
– Riotsbafflednorthernerswhoconsideredracial
problemsa“southern” question
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V.BlackPower(cont.)
– Blacksmovednorthover1900s
– Facedresidentialdiscrimination,white
outmigrationtosuburbs,anddeindustrialization
• Blackunemploymentnearlydoublethatofwhites
– Despairdeepenedwhen MartinLutherKing,Jr.,
murderedonApril4,1968
• Triggeredmoreriots
– Riotersmadenews,butthousandsofother
blacksquietlymadehistory
• BlackvoterregistrationinSouthshotupward
V.BlackPower(cont.)
• Bylate1960s,severalhundredblacksheldelected
officeinOldSouth
• Cleveland,OhioandGary,Indianaelectedblack
mayors
• By1972,nearlyhalfofsouthernblackchildrenin
integratedschools
– More schools integrated in South than North
• Aboutathirdofblackshadrisenintomiddleclass
• Kingleftshininglegacyofracialprogress,buthewas
cutdownwhenjobfarfromdone
VI.VietnamVexations
– Viet Cong(guerillasloyaltoNorthVietnamese
communists)attackedU.S.airbaseatPleiku,
SouthVietnam,February 1965
– Johnsonorderedretaliatorybombingraidsagainst
military installationsinNorthVietnam
– Forfirsttime,orderedU.S.combattroopsto
SouthVietnam
• Bymid-March,“OperationRollingThunder” infull
swing—regularbombingagainstNorthVietnam
• Before1965ended,184,000Americantroopsinvolved
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• Johnsonhadtakenslipperypathtoward“escalation”
ofU.S.troopstodriveenemytodefeat
• GuerrillaenemymatchedeveryAmericanincrease
• SouthVietnamesebecamespectatorsaswarbecame
Americanized
• CorruptandcollapsiblegovernmentsinSaigon
succeededeachother
• YetU.S.A.claimedtobedefendingademocratically
• “Hawks” defendedwarasnecessarytoshowU.S.
“commitment” tofulfillnumeroustreatypledgesto
resistcommunistencroachment
p892
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• JohnsonsteadilyraisedmilitarystakesinVietnam
– By 1968, ahalf million troops there and annual bill for war
exceeded $30 billion
– Still end nowhere in sight
• U.S.A.couldnot defeatenemyinVietnam, but
itseemedtobebringing defeatupon itself
– Worldreactions:
• SeveralnationsexpelledPeaceCorpsvolunteers
• deGaullewithdrewFrancefromNATOin1966
– Ordered all American troops out of France
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– Overcommitmenttied America'shandselsewhere
– InSix-DayWar (1967),Israel:
• DefeatedEgypt,Jordan,andSyria
• GainedterritoriesinSinaiPeninsula,GolanHeights,
GazaStrip,andWestBankofJordanRiver,including
Jerusalem(seeMap39.2)
– VictorybroughtonemillionresentfulPalestinian
ArabsunderdirectIsraelicontrol
– Another350,000Palestinianrefugeesfledto
neighboringJordan
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• IsraellateragreedtowithdrawfromSinaiafter
signingapeacetreatywithEgypt
• Israelrefusedtorelinquishotherareaswithouta
treaty
• BeganmovingJewishsettlersintoheavilyArabdistrict
ofWestBank
– Six-DayWarintensifiedproblemsofvolatile
MiddleEast
• IntractablestandoffbetweenIsraelisandPalestinians
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– DomesticdiscontentfesteredoverVietnam:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Campus“teach-ins” in1965
Graduallyprotestsgrewtotidal-waveproportions
Draftclaimedmoreandmoreyoungmen
ThousandsofdraftregistrantsfledtoCanada
Otherspubliclyburneddraftcards
Hundredsofthousandsmarchedinprotest
ManyAmericansfeltpangsofconscienceatburning
peasanthutsandusingdestructiveweapons
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– Congress'soppositiontoVietnam:
• CenteredinSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations,
headedbySenatorWilliamFulbright
– Held series of televised hearings in 1966 and 1967
– Public came to feel they had been deceived about causes
and “winnability” ofwar
• “Credibilitygap” openedbetweengovernmentand
public
– Withinadministrationitself:
• DoubtsdeepenedaboutwisdomofwarinVietnam
– When Defense SecretaryMcNamara expressed misgivings
about war, he was eased out ofoffice
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• By1968,brutalandfutilestrugglehadbecomelongest
andmostunpopularforeignwartodateforU.S.A.
• Casualties(killedandwounded)alreadyexceeded
100,000
• MorebombsdroppedonVietnam,thanonallenemy
territoryinWWII
• Governmentutterlyfailedtoexplaintothepeoplewhat
wassupposedtobeatstakeinVietnam
VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• Johnson:
• OrderedCIA,inclearviolationofitscharter,tospyon
domesticantiwaractivists
• EncouragedFBItoturnitscounterintelligence
program,“Cointelpro,” againstpeacemovement
– “Cointelpro” falsely labeled leading “doves” as communist
sympathizers
– Tactics made FBIlook like totalitarian state's secret police
rather than guardian of American democracy
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• Evidencemounted thatUSAtrapped inacivil
war(motivated rebels vs.brutalgovernment)
– Yet LBJclungtostrategyofratchetingup
pressurebitbybit
– StubbornlyassuredAmericansthathecouldsee
“thelightattheendofthetunnel”
– Togrowing numbersofAmericans,itseemedLBJ
benton“saving” Vietnambydestroyingit
p892
VII.VietnamTopples Johnson
• January1968, communist offensivelaunched
onTet, VietnameseNewYear
• VietCongattacked27SouthVietnamesecities,
includingcapitalSaigon
• ShowedJohnson'sstrategyofcontinualescalationnot
working
• Tetoffensiveendedinmilitarydefeatbutpolitical
victoryforVietCong
– U.S.public opinion increasingly demanded end to war
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VII.VietnamTopples Johnson
(cont.)
– American militaryleaders respondedtoTetwith
requestfor200,000moretroops
• Requeststaggeredmanypolicymakers
– LBJchallengedwithinhisownparty:
• EugeneMcCarthyreceived41.4%ofvoteinNew
HampshireprimaryonMarch12,1968
• Johnson'sstarfellfurtherfourdayslaterwhenRobert
F.Kennedyenteredracefornomination
– Kennedy stirred passionate response among workers,
African Americans, Latinos, and young people
VII.VietnamTopples Johnson
(cont.)
– Mar.31:Johnsonannouncedhewouldfreeze
troopslevelsandscalebackbombing
• Declaredhewouldnotbeacandidatein1968election
– Johnson's“abdication” hadeffectofpreserving
military statusquo
• Heheld“hawks” incheck,whileofferinghimselfasa
sacrificetomilitant“doves”
• U.S.A.couldmaintainmaximumacceptablelevelof
militaryactivityinVietnam,whiletryingtonegotiatea
settlement
p893
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof
1968
– 1968oneofhottestpoliticalseasonsinU.S.history
• VicepresidentHubertH.HumphreywasLBJ'sheir
apparentforDemocraticnomination
• MeanwhileMcCarthyandKennedydueledinprimaries
– On June 5, 1968, Kennedy killed by Arab immigrant resentful of
RFK's pro-Israel views
• AntiwargroupsconvergedonDemocraticconventionin
Chicago,August1968
• Exasperatedbysomemilitantdemonstrators,police
brokeintoa“policeriot” onguiltyandinnocentalike
• Humphreygainednominationonfirstballotbecause
processprivilegedpartyofficialsoverprimaryresults
p894
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes
of1968(cont.)
– Republicanconvention,MiamiBeach
• RichardM.Nixonbecamecandidateacceptableto
Goldwaterconservativesaswellaspartymoderates
• TappedMaryland'sGovernorSpiroT.Agnewas
runningmatetoappealtowhitesoutherners
– Agnew tough on dissidents and black militants
• PlatformcalledforvictoryinVietnamandstrong
anticrimepolicy
• “Spoiler” thirdpartyticket—AmericanIndependent
party—headedbyGeorgeC.Wallace
– Gained fame with his opposition toCivil Rights Movement
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes
of1968(cont.)
– Between positionsofRepublicansand
DemocratsonVietnam,therewaslittle choice:
• Bothcandidatescommittedtocontinuewaruntil
enemysettledfor“honorablepeace” (i.e.,U.S.win)
• Millionsof“doves” hadnoplacetoroost
– Many refused to vote at all
• Humphrey,scorchedbyLBJbrand,wentdownto
defeatasloyalprisonerofhischief'spolicies
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes
of1968(cont.)
– Nixonwon:
• 301electoralvotes,43.4%ofpopulartally(31,785,480)
• Humphrey:191electoralvotes,42.7ofpopularvotes
(31,275,166)(seeMap37.2)
• HoweverNixon
– Faced Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress
– Carried not asingle major city
– Received no clear mandate to do anything
– A minority president who owed his election to divisions over
war and protest against unfair draft, crime, and rioting
Map 37-2 p895
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes
of1968(cont.)
– Wallace:
• Wonimpressive9,906,473popularvotes
• 46electoralvotes,allfromfivestatesofDeepSouth
– four of which Goldwater had carried in 1964
• Wallaceamassedlargestthird-partypopularvotein
U.S.historytothatpoint
• Lastthird-partycandidatetowinanyelectoralvotes
– Ross Perot in 1992 enjoyed a greater popular vote margin
but won no states (see Map 40.1)
• Wallacedemonstratedcontinuingpowerof
“populist” politics—appealtovoters' fearsand
resentments
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof
1968(cont.)
– JohnsonreturnedtoTexasinJanuary1969,only
todiefouryearslater:
• Hadsignificantachievementsincivilrightsandhelpto
poor
• By1966LBJsinkingintoVietnamquicksand
• Soaringwarcostsconsumedtaxdollars
• WaronPovertymetresistanceandwouldeventually
godownindefeat
VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes
of1968(cont.)
• JohnsoncrucifiedhimselfoncrossofVietnam
• ChosetodefendU.S.footholdandenlargeconflict
ratherthanwithdraw
• Decisionnottoescalatefightingfurtherin1968
offended“hawks,” andhisrefusaltobackoff
altogetherantagonized“doves”
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe
1960s
– Strugglesof1960sagainstracism,poverty,andwarin
Vietnam hadmomentousculturalconsequences:
– Negative attitudes toward all kinds of authority took hold
– Many young people lost traditional moral rudders
– Conventional wisdom and inherited ideas cameunder fire
– MainlineProtestantdenominationsweakened
• Weeklychurchgoingdeclinedfrom48%inlate1950sto
41%in1970s
• LiberalProtestantchurchessufferedmost
– Increasingly ceded religious authority to conservative evangelicals
– While surrendering cultural authority to secular professionals and
academic social scientists
IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe
1960s(cont.)
• AseducatedAmericansbecameincreasinglysecular,
lesseducatedbecamemorereligious
• Religiousupheavaloccurredintradition-bound
RomanCatholicChurchaftersecondVaticanCouncil
• Skepticismaboutauthorityhaddeephistoricalroots
inAmericanculture,includingin1950s:
– “Beat” movement rejected culture and politics of decade
– Movies like Rebel Without a Cause (1955) with young actor
James Dean expressed restless frustration of many young
people
IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe
1960s(cont.)
– Disaffectionofyoungcrescendoedin1960sasBaby
Boomreachedcollegeage:
• 1offirstprotestsagainstauthoritybrokeoutatUniversity
ofCaliforniaatBerkeleyin1964
– Free Speech Movement—students objected to administrative ban
on use ofcampus space for political debate
• ProtestsblossomedoverVietnamandsoonsawriseofselfconscious“counterculture” opposedtotraditionalways
• SocialupheavalfarfromAmerican-onlyphenomenon
– Across globe, youth-driven political and social conflict roiled
– Helped by global reach of youth pop culture, especially music
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p896
p897
p898
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe
1960s(cont.)
• 1960switnessed“sexualrevolution”:
– Introduction ofbirth control pill (1960) made pregnancies
easier to avoid and sexual appetites easier to satisfy
– Mattachine Society, founded in Los Angeles in 1951, a
pioneering society advocating gayrights
– Stonewall Rebellion at New York City's Stonewall Inn(1969)
proved turning point as victims of police brutality fought
back
– In1980s, worries about sexually transmitted diseases like
genital herpes and AIDS(acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome) slowed, but did not reverse, sexual revolution
p899
IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe
1960s(cont.)
• Launchedinyouthfulidealism,manyofdecade's
“revolutions” sputteredoutinviolenceandcynicism
• StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS):
– Once at forefront of antipoverty and antiwar campaigns
– Spawned underground terrorist group called Weathermen
• Peacefulcivilrightsdemonstrationsgavewayto
urbanriots
• ExperimentswithmarijuanaandLSDspawned
underworldofdruglordsandaddicts
• Criticsdenouncedself-indulgentromanticismof
“flowerchildren”
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IX.TheCultureUpheavalofthe
1960s(cont.)
– Supportershailed“greening” ofAmerica
• Materialismandimperialismreplacedbynew
consciousnessofhumanvalues
– Upheavalsof1960scanbeattributedtothreeP's:
• Youthfulpopulationbulge
• ProtestsagainstracismandVietnamWar
• Prosperitythatseemedpermanentfixtureofpostwarera
– “Counterculture” maynothavereplacedolder
values,butitweakened theirgrip,perhaps
permanently
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar
– InauguratedonJan.20,1969,Nixonwas:
• Anunlikelyconciliatorofclashingforcesripping
Americansocietyapart
– Solitary and suspicious
– Brittle and testy in faceof opposition
– Bitterly resented “liberal establishment”
• Yet,hebroughtonehugevaluableassettoWhite
House:
– Broad knowledge and thoughtful expertise in foreign affairs
– Applied himself to put America's foreign-policy in order
• Firstgoal:quietuproaroverVietnam
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar
(cont.)
• Vietnamization policy:
• Withdrawthe540,000troopsinSouthVietnamover
anextendedperiod
• SouthernVietnamese—withU.S.money,weapons,
training,andadvice—wouldgraduallytakeoverwar
• NixonDoctrine thusevolved:
• ProclaimedU.S.A.wouldhonoritsexistingdefense
commitments
• Infuture,allieswouldhavetofighttheirownwars
withoutsupportoflargebodiesofU.S.troops
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar
(cont.)
• NixonsoughttowinVietnamwarbyothermeans
– Without further spilling American blood
• Advocatingimmediatewithdrawal,antiwarprotesters
stagedbignationalVietnammoratoriuminOct.1969
• Nixonlaunchedcounteroffensivebyappealingtosilent
majoritywhopresumablysupportedwar
– His appeal deeply divisive
– VP Agnew attacked“nattering nabobs of negativism” who
demanded quick end to war
– In1970, Nixon sneered at student protesters as “bums”
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar
(cont.)
– ByJan.1970,Vietnamhadbecamevery
unpopular,evenamongU.S.troopsinfield
– Armed forcesinVietnamlargelycomposedof
leastprivileged youngAmericans
– Early inwar, AfricanAmericans:
• Disproportionatelyrepresentedinarmy
• Accountedforhighestshareofcombatfatalities
X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar
(cont.)
– U.S.soldiers:
• FoughtVietnameseaswellasbooby-trappedswamps
andsteamingjungles
• Unabletotellfriendfromfoeamongpeasants
• Drugabuse,mutiny,andsabotagedulledfighting
edge
• Moraleplummetedfurtherwithrumorsthatsoldiers
“fragged” theirofficers—murderedthemwith
fragmentationgrenades
• Revelationsin1970about1968slaughterinMyLai
deepeneddomesticdisgustwithwar
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p900
XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar
– OnApr.29,1970Nixon,withoutconsulting
Congress,orderedU.S.troopstocleanoutenemy
sanctuariesinofficiallyneutralCambodia
– Massivecampusriotsoverthisnewestescalation:
• AtKentStateUniversity inOhio,jumpyNationalGuard
firedintonoisycrowd,killingfourandwoundingmany
more
• AthistoricallyblackJacksonStateCollege,Mississippi,
highwaypatroldischargedvolleys,killingtwostudents
p901
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XI.Cambodianizing theVietnam
War(cont.)
– NixonwithdrewtroopsfromCambodiaonJune
29,1970,afteronlytwomonths
– ResultsofCambodianinvasion:
• Amplifiedbitternessbetween“hawks” and“doves”
• Disillusionmentwith“whitey'swar” increasedamong
AfricanAmericansinarmedforces
• Senate(butnotHouse)repealedGulfofTonkinblank
checkthatCongressgaveJohnsonin1964
• Youthonlyslightlymollifiedwhengovernment
reduceddraftcallsandshortenedperiodof
draftability
– On a lottery basis, from eight years to one year
p901
XI.Cambodianizing theVietnam
(cont.)
• Youthpleased,thoughnotpacified,in1971when26th
Amendmentloweredvotingageto18(seeAppendix)
• Newcombustiblesfueledfiresofantiwardiscontent
inJune1971:
– Former Pentagon official leaked to New YorkTimes the
Pentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study
– Documented war's blunders and deceptions, especially
provoking of 1964 North Vietnamese attack in Gulf of
Tonkin
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing
(Peking)andMoscow
• Dramatic initiatives inBeijing andMoscow:
• TwomajorCommunistpowersclashedover
interpretationofMarxismaswellasborderbetween
them
• NixonrealizedChinese-SoviettensionaffordedU.S.A.
opportunitytoplayoneantagonistagainsttheother
• AndenlistaidofbothinpressuringNorthVietnaminto
peace
• HenryKissingerhadbeenmeetingsecretlywithNorth
VietnameseofficialsinParistonegotiateendtowar
• Hewasmeanwhilepreparingpresident'spathtoBeijing
andMoscow
XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing
(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
– July 1971: Nixon announced he had accepted invitation to
visit Communist China the following year
– Made his historic journey in February 1972
– Capped visit with Shanghai Communiqué:
» Inwhich two nations agreed to “normalize”
relationship
» Important part of accordwas America's acceptance of
“one-China” policy
» Implied lessened American commitment to
independence ofTaiwan
XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing
(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
– Nixon next traveled to Moscow in May 1972:
» To play “China card” in game ofhigh-stakes diplomacy
with Kremlin
» Soviets ready to deal with United States
• Nixon'svisitusheredineraofdétente:
– Relaxed tension—with major communist powers
• Andproducedseveralsignificantagreementsin1972
– Most important, USA and USSR agreed to anti-ballistic
missile (ABM) treaty and to series of arms-reduction
negotiations known as SALT(Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
» Aimed at freezing numbers oflong-range missiles for
five years
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XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing
(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
– ABM and SALT accords afirst step toward slowing arms race
– Yetboth forged ahead with development of“MIRVs”
(multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles)
» Put a number of warheads on a single missile
• Nixon's détente diplomacy did, tosome
extent, de-ice Cold War
XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing
(Peking)andMoscow (cont.)
• Nixon remained staunchly anticommunist
• Opposed election ofMarxist Salvador
Allende topresidency ofChile in1970
• Allende diedduring anarmyattackonhis
headquarters in1973
• Nixon warmlyembraced Allende's successor,
military dictator General AugustoPinochet
p902
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XIII.ANewTeamontheSupreme
Bench
• Nixon andSupreme Court
• In1968,Nixonlashedoutagainst“permissiveness” and
“judicialactivism” ofWarrenCourt
• WarrenCourtaffectedsexualfreedom,criminalrights,
practiceofreligion,civilrights,andrepresentation
• Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965):Courtvoidedstatelaw
thatbanneduseofcontraceptives,evenamong
marriedcouples,becauseof“rightofprivacy”
• Gideonv.Wainwright(1963):Courtheldthatall
criminaldefendantsentitledtolegalcounsel,evenif
toopoortoaffordit
XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme
Bench(cont.)
• Escobedo(1964)andMiranda(1966)ensuredrightof
accusedtoremainsilentandenjoyprotections
• Mirandawarning–policemustreadtosuspects
– Rulingssoughttopreventabusivepolicetactics
• Toconservativesseemedtocoddlecriminalsand
subvertlawandorder
– ConservativesalsoobjectedtoCourt'sviewson
religion:
XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme
Bench(cont.)
– InEngelv. Vitale(1962)andSchoolDistrictof
AbingdonTownshipv.Schempp(1963):
• JusticesarguedFirstAmendment'sseparationof
churchandstatemeantpublicschoolscouldnot
requireprayerorBiblereading
• Socialconservativesraisedanewbattlecry“Impeach
EarlWarren” (seeChap.36)
– From1954,Courtcameunderrelentless
criticism,bitterestsinceNewDealdays
• Grappledwithproblemslegislaturesfailedtoaddress
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XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme
Bench(cont.)
• Fulfilling campaignpromise, Nixon tried to
changeCourt's philosophical complexion:
• Soughtappointeeswhowould:
– Strictly interpret Constitution
– Cease “meddling” in social and political questions
– Not coddle radicals or criminals
• AppointedWarrenE.BurgertosucceedEarlWarren
• Beforeendof1971,Nixonhadappointedfour
conservativestoCourt
XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme
Bench(cont.)
• Nixon learned that onceseated, justices
decide according to conscience, notaccording
topresident's expectations
• Burger Court provedreluctant todismantle
“liberal” rulings ofWarren Court
– ControversialandmomentousRoev.Wade(1973)
whichlegalizedabortion(seeChap.38)
p903
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
• Oversawbigexpansion ofwelfare programs
thatconservative Republicans denounced:
• IncreasedappropriationsforFoodStamps,Medicaid,
andAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDC)
• Addednewprogram:SupplementalSecurityIncome
(SSI)toassistindigent,aged,blind,anddisabled
• AutomaticSocialSecuritycost-of-livingincreases
• Implementedso-calledPhiladelphiaPlan (1969):
– Required trade unions toestablish “goals and time-tables”
for hiring black apprentices
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
(cont.)
• Philadelphia Plan:
• Required1,000sofemployerstomeethiringquotasor
establish“set-asides” forminoritysubcontractors
• Alteredmeaningof“affirmativeaction”
– From protect individuals against discrimination
– To program that conferred privileges on certain groups
• SupremeCourtwentalongwithNixon'sapproach
– Griggs v.DukePower Co.(1971): Court banned intelligence
tests or other devices that had effectof excluding minorities
or women from certain jobs
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
(cont.)
• Onlysureprotectionagainstchargeofdiscriminationwas
tohireminoritiesoradmitminoritystudents
– Inproportion to their presence in population
• NixonandCourtopenednewemploymentand
educationalopportunitiesforminoritiesandwomen
• Criticsprotestedchangesas“reversediscrimination”
– AnotherNixonlegacy:
• 1970creationofEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
• RachelCarson'sSilentSpring(1962)exposedpoisonous
effectsofpesticides
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p904
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
(cont.)
• April22,1970,millionsaroundworldcelebratedfirst
EarthDay:
– To raise awareness and to encourage leaders to act
– Congress passed Clean Air Act (1970) and Endangered Species
Act (1973)
– EPA made progress in reducing automobile emissions and
cleaning up befouled waterways and toxic waste sites
• Federalgovernmentexpandedregulatoryreachon
behalfofworkersandconsumers
– 1970 Nixon signed Occupational Safetyand Health
Administration (OSHA) into law
XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
(cont.)
– Created agencydedicated toimproving working conditions
» Prevent work-related accidents and death
» Issue safety standards
• ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC):
– Held companies accountable for selling dangerous products
• Businesscriticsdecried“nannystate”
• 1971:Nixonimposed90-daywageandpricefreeze
• HethentookU.S.A.offgoldstandardanddevalued
dollar
– Two actions ended “Bretton Woods” system ofinternational
currency stabilization that had functioned since end ofWWII
(see Chap. 35)
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
(cont.)
– Devisedplan—calledsouthernstrategy—togain
reelection in1972
– Appointed conservative Supreme Court justices
– Soft-pedaled civil rights
– Opposed school busing toachieve racial balance
– Goal:convertdisillusionedwhitesouthern
DemocratstoRepublicans
– Set inmotionsweepingpoliticalrealignment
thateventuallytransformedpartysystem
XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972
• Fouryearssince Nixon promised toend
Vietnamwarand“win” peace
• 1972:whenNorthVietnamburstthrough
demilitarizedzoneseparatingtwoVietnams,Nixon
launchedmassivebombingattacks
• ContinuingVietnamconflictspurredriseofSouth
DakotasenatorGeorgeMcGovernto1972
Democraticnomination
• Helpedbychangesinnominationsystemthat
increasedimportanceofprimaryelections
– New system emphasized media politicking and activist base
XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972
(cont.)
• McGovern usednewpopulist process
– PromisedtopullremainingtroopsoutofVietnam
inninetydays:
• Earnedhimbackingoflargeantiwarelementinparty
• Hisappealtoracialminorities,feminists,leftists,and
youthalienatedtraditionalworking-classDemocrats
• Nixon emphasized hehadwound down
“Democratic war” inVietnam
– From540,000toabout30,000troops
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XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972
(cont.)
• Hiscandidacyreceivedaddedboosttwelvedays
beforeelectionwhenKissingerannounced
– “Peace is at hand” and an agreement would be reached in a
few days
• Nixonwonlandslide:
– Won everystate exceptMassachusetts and nonstate District
of Columbia (see Appendix)
– Received 520 electoral votes to 17 for McGovern
– Popular majority of47,169,911 to 29,170,383 votes
• McGoverncountedonyoungvote,butlessthanhalf
18-20agegroupevenbotheredtoregistertovote
p905
XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia
andtheWarPowersAct
– Doveofpeace“athand” justbeforeballoting,took
flightafterelection:
• Nixonlaunchedfurioustwo-weekbombing
• NorthVietnamagreedtocease-fireinTreatyofParis(Jan.
23,1973)nearlythreemonthsafterpeaceprematurely
proclaimed
• Nixonhailedcease-fireas“peacewithhonor,” butboast
ranghallowas“peace” littlemorethanU.S.retreat
– United States would withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops and
reclaim 560 American prisoners ofwar
– North Vietnam allowed to keep 145,000 troops in South Vietnam
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia
andtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
• Constitutionality ofU.S.warinCambodia:
– July1973:publiclearnedAirForcehadsecretly
bombedCambodia3,500timessinceMar.1969
• Whileforaysgoingon,U.S.officials,includingNixon,
hadswornCambodianneutralitybeingrespected
• Defiancefollowedsecretiveness:
– Nixon continued bombing Cambodia even after Vietnam
cease-fire
– Repeatedly vetoed congressional efforts to stop bombing
XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia
andtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
– Years ofbombingwoundedCambodia:
• Blasteditspeople
• Shreddeditseconomy
• Revolutionizeditspolitics
– CambodianssufferedsadisticheelofPolPot:
• Twomilliondied
• Potforcedfromofficeby1978Vietnameseinvasion
XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia
andtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
• 1973 WarPowersAct overNixon's veto:
• RequiredpresidentreporttoCongresswithin48
hoursaftercommittingtroopstoforeignconflictor
“substantially” enlargingcombatunitsabroad
• Suchalimitedauthorizationwouldendwithin60days
unlessextendedbyCongressfor30days
• Actmanifestationof“NewIsolationism,” moodof
cautionandrestraintabroad
• DraftendedinJanuary1973
– Future members ofarmed forces would be volunteers
35
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandthe
EnergyCrisis
• YomKippur Warerupted October 1973
• SyriaandEgyptattackedIsraeltoregainlandlost
duringSix-DayWar(1967)
• KissingerflewtoMoscowtorestrainSoviets,who
werearmingattackers
• Nixonplacednuclearforcesonalertandordered
airliftof$2billioninwarmaterialstoIsrael
• IsraelisturnedtideandthreatenedCairobefore
U.S.A.brokereduneasycease-fire
p907
XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoand
theEnergyCrisis (cont.)
– U.S.policyofbackingIsraelagainstitsoil-rich
neighborsexactedheavypenalty:
• Oct.1973,OPECannouncedoilembargotoU.S.A.and
thoseEuropeanalliessupportingIsrael
• Oil-richArabstatesalsocutoilproduction
• Oilshortagetriggeredmajoreconomicrecession,not
onlyinUnitedStates,butalsoFranceandBritain
• Inincreasinglyglobalized,interconnectedworld,all
nationsfeltcrunchof“energycrisis”
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p907
XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoand
theEnergyCrisis (cont.)
– Five monthsofembargoendederaofcheapand
abundantenergy
– Since1948,U.S.A.hadbeennetoilimporter
U.S.oilproductionpeakedin1970,thandeclined
YetAmericanstripledtheiroilusagesinceWWII
Automobilesincreased250%between1949and1972
By1974,Americaoil-addictedandvulnerabletoany
interruptioninsupplies
• MiddleEastattainednewimportancetoU.S.interests
•
•
•
•
IVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandthe
EnergyCrisis (cont.)
• OPECquadrupled price forcrude oil after
lifting embargo in1974
– Results:
• HugeoilbillsdisruptedU.S.balanceofinternational
tradeandfurtherfueledragingfireofinflation
• U.S.tookleadtoformInternationalEnergyAgencyin
1974ascounterweighttoOPEC
• VarioussectorsofU.S.economy,includingautos,began
toadjusttodawningageofenergydependency
• E.g.,nationalspeedlimit(55)toconservefuel
37
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p909
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