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10/28/16 Chapter 37 The StormySixties, 1963–1973 Presented by: Mr. Anderson, M.Ed., J.D. I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency • LyndonBaines Johnson (LBJ): – Became presidentuponJFK'sassassination – SenttoCongressin1937atage29 – FDRwashispolitical“Daddy,” Johnsonclaimed • LBJstronglysupportedNewDealmeasures • WhenhelostabidforSenate(1941),LBJlearnedthat liberalpoliticsdidnotwinelectionsinTexas • WonaSenateseatin1948byshiftinghispoliciesto rightandbyaquestionable87-votemargin—hence nickname“LandsideLyndon” I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency (cont.) • InSenate, Johnson developed into master wheeler-dealer: – Became Democraticmajorityleader in1954 • Usedwhatwascalledthe“Johnsontreatment”— intimidatingdisplayofbackslapping,flesh-pressing, andarm-twistingthatoverborefriendsandfoesalike • Hisegoandvanitywerelegendary • Aspresident,heshreddedconservativecolorationof hisSenateyearstoreveallatentliberalunderneath 1 10/28/16 I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency (cont.) • Congress passedCivil Rights Actof1964: – Bannedracialdiscriminationinmostprivate facilitiesopentopublic • Includingtheaters,hospitals,restaurants – Strengthenedfederal government'spowerto endsegregationinschoolsandpublicplaces – Title VIIbarred employersfromdiscriminatingon raceornationalorigininhiring – Empowered EqualEmploymentOpportunity Commission(EEOC)toenforcelaw I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency (cont.) – Title VIIpassedwithgenderclauseintact • Provedtobepowerfulinstrumentoffederallyenforcedgenderequality – Johnson(1965)issuedexecutiveorderrequiring allfederal contractorstotakeaffirmativeaction againstdiscrimination • Johnson alsopushedthrough Congress: – Kennedy'sstalledtaxbill – Proposalsforbillion-dollar“WaronPoverty” I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency (cont.) • Concerns about povertyraisedbyMichael Harrington's TheOtherAmerica (1962): – Revealed that20%ofpopulation,andover40% ofblackpopulation,sufferedpoverty • WaronPovertypartofLBJ's GreatSociety: – Sweeping New Deal-styledomesticreforms • Targetedremainingpocketsofpoverty • Majornewinvestmentsineducationandarts 2 10/28/16 II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964 • Election of1964: – Johnson'snominationaforegoneconclusion • ChosenbyacclamationinAtlanticCity • Democratsstoodfoursquareonmostliberalplatform sinceTruman'sFairDealdays – Republicans • MetinSanFrancisco,nominatedSenatorBarry Goldwater,arock-ribbedconservative • Stagesetforhistoricclashofpoliticalprinciples II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin 1964(cont.) • Goldwater'sforcestrouncedmoderate“easternestablishment” • Goldwaterattacked: – Federal income tax, social security system, TVA – Civil rights legislation, nuclear test-ban treaty – Most loudly, the Great Society • Hisnominationreflectedgrowingconservativemovement – Gathered strength in mushrooming middle-class suburbs ofSunbelt – Led byWilliam F.Buckley and Young Americans for Freedom – Well-received by white southerners angry atCivil Rights Act of 1964 • Democrats' attackonGoldwater: – Exploited image of Goldwater as trigger-happy cowboy p885 3 10/28/16 II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin 1964(cont.) – Johnson'simageasresolutestatesman • SeizeduponTonkinGulfepisodeinAugust1964: – Covert U.S.help to South Vietnamese raids on N.Vietnam – LBJ publically called alleged attacks “unprovoked” – Ordered “limited” retaliatory air raid – Claimed he sought “no wider war” – Got Congress to pass all-purpose Tonkin Gulf Resolution: » Congress abdicated war-declaring powers » Handed president ablank checkto use further forcein Southeast Asia II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin 1964(cont.) • Election results: – VotersflockedtoJohnsonbecause: • FondnessforKennedylegacy • FaithinGreatSocietypromises • FearofGoldwater – Count: • Popularvote: – Johnson—43,129, 566; Goldwater—27,178 ,188 • Electoralcount: – Johnson's 486 to 52 forGoldwater (see Map 37.1) Map 37-1 p886 4 10/28/16 II.Johnson BattlesGoldwaterin 1964(cont.) • Goldwater: • CarriedonlyhisnativeArizonaandfivestatesinSouth • SouthtraditionallyDemocraticbutnowracially restless • Johnson: • Recordbreaking61%ofpopularvotesweptlopsided DemocraticmajoritiesintobothhousesofCongress III.TheGreatSocietyCongress – Johnson'swintemporarilysmashedconservative congressionalcoalitionofsouthernDemocrats andnorthernRepublicans – RoadopenforGreatSocietyreforms: • LBJhelpedbygrowingeconomy • WaronPoverty: – Doubled appropriation ofOffice of Economic Opportunity to $2 billion – Granted more than $1 billion toredevelop Appalachia • Createdtwonewdepartments: » Department of Transportation » Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) III.TheGreatSocietyCongress (cont.) – Named first black cabinet secretary in nation's history— respected economist Robert C.Weaver—to HUD • EstablishedNationalEndowmentsfortheArtsandfor theHumanities: – Designed to lift level of American cultural life – BigFourlegislative achievementscrownedLBJ's GreatSocietyprograms: • Aidtoeducation – To avoid separation of church and state issue, LBJ awarded aid directly to students » Signed bill in humble one-room Texas school-house he attended as a child 5 10/28/16 III.TheGreatSocietyCongress (cont.) • MedicareforelderlyandMedicaidforpoor: – Created “entitlements” » Rights for certain categories of Americans in perpetuity » Without need for repeated congressional approval – Part of spreading “rights revolution” that helped millions, but also created long-term financial problems for federal government • Immigrationreform: – Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished “nationalorigins” quota system in place since 1921 (see Chap. 30) – Doubled number of immigrants allowed to enter annually to 290,000 – For first time, set limits on immigrants from Western Hemisphere (120,000) III.TheGreatSocietyCongress (cont.) – Provided for admission of close relatives of U.S.citizens, outside numerical limits » 100,000 people per year took advantage of “family unification” provision in decades after 1965 – Source of immigration shifted from Europe to Latin America and Asia – GreatSocietyprogramscame inforpolitical attacksinlateryears: • Conservativeschargedbillionsspentfor“social engineering” wasted • Yetpovertyleveldeclinedinensuringdecade(see Figure37.1) p887 6 10/28/16 III.TheGreatSocietyCongress (cont.) • Medicaredramaticallyreducedpovertyamongelderly • ProjectHeadStart—sharplyimprovededucational performanceofunderprivilegedyouth • GreatSocietyprogramsreducedinfantmortalityratesin minoritycommunities Figur e 37-1 p888 IV.BattlingforBlackRights • VotingRights Actof1965: – OneofAmerica'smostpersistentevils—racial discrimination • CivilRightsActof1964: – Gavefederal government more muscle to enforce schooldesegregation orders – And to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations and employment • Problemofvotingremained: – Mississippi: only 5% of eligible blacks registered to vote – Similar throughout South 7 10/28/16 IV.BattlingforBlackRights (cont.) – Ballot-denying devices: poll tax, literacy tests, barefaced intimidation – Mississippi required names of prospective black registrants be published for two weeks in local newspapers—virtual ly guaranteed economic reprisals, or worse • 1964:votingbecomechiefgoalofblackmovement – Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified January 1964, abolished poll taxin federal elections (see Appendix) – Freedom Summer 1964: blacks joined with whites in massive voter-registration drive in Mississippi » InJune, one black and two white civil rights workers murdered » Mississippi officials refused to prosecute those responsible IV.BattlingforBlackRights (cont.) • August:integratedMississippiFreedomDemocratic partydelegationdeniedseatsatDemocraticconvention • Early1965,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,resumedvoterregistrationcampaigninSelma,Alabama: – 50% of city's population black, but only 1% of its voters – A Unitarian minister killed – Few days later, awhite Detroit woman murdered by Klansmen IV.BattlingforBlackRights (cont.) – JohnsonshepherdedthroughCongresslandmark VotingRightsActof1965;signedintolawAugust6 • Outlawedliteracytests • Sentfederalvoterregistrarsintoseveralsouthernstates • Overtimebroughtdramaticchangetosouthernpolitics andbusinesses • Soonblacksbegantomigrateinto Southforfirsttime sinceemancipation 8 10/28/16 p889 V.BlackPower • VotingRights Actof1965: – Lastmajorlegislative victoryofsouthern-focused, integrationist,nonviolentcivilrightsmovement – IncreasedfocusonstrugglesinurbanNorthagainst discriminationandpolicebrutality • FivedaysafterLBJsignedVotingRightsAct,bloodyriot eruptedinWatts,ablackghettoinLosAngeles – 31 blacks and 3whites killed; more than athousand people injured; hundreds ofbuildings charred and gutted • Heraldedshifttomilitancy,radicalism,andseparatism V.BlackPower(cont.) • Leadership ofMalcolm X: – BornMalcolmLittle,hewasinspiredbymilitant blacknationalistsinNationofIslam • LikeNation'sfounder—ElijahMuhammed(bornElijah Poole),Malcolmchangedhissurnametoadvertiselost AfricanidentityinwhiteAmerica • MalcolmXtrumpetedblackseparatism • LaterbrokewithElijahMuhammed'sseparatism; movedtowardmainstreamIslam • Early1965,killedbyNationofIslamgunmen 9 10/28/16 p890 V.BlackPower(cont.) • Socialist BlackPanther party used “citizens' patrols” toresist police brutality • In1966, StokelyCarmichael, SNCC leader: • BegantopreachdoctrineofBlackPower • LikeGarveyof1920s(seeChap.30),Carmichael breathedseparatistmeaningintoconceptofBlack Power – Emphasized African American distinctiveness – Promoted “Afro” hairstyles and dress – Shed “white” names for new African identities – Demanded black studies programs in education V.BlackPower(cont.) • 1967:moreriots inblackurban ghettos – Newark, New Jersey(killed25people) – Detroit,Michigan(killed43people) • AsinWatts(1965),rioterstorchedneighborhoods • Attackedpoliceofficersandevenfirefighters – RiotsangeredmanywhiteAmericans, who threatened toretaliate – Riotsbafflednorthernerswhoconsideredracial problemsa“southern” question 10 10/28/16 V.BlackPower(cont.) – Blacksmovednorthover1900s – Facedresidentialdiscrimination,white outmigrationtosuburbs,anddeindustrialization • Blackunemploymentnearlydoublethatofwhites – Despairdeepenedwhen MartinLutherKing,Jr., murderedonApril4,1968 • Triggeredmoreriots – Riotersmadenews,butthousandsofother blacksquietlymadehistory • BlackvoterregistrationinSouthshotupward V.BlackPower(cont.) • Bylate1960s,severalhundredblacksheldelected officeinOldSouth • Cleveland,OhioandGary,Indianaelectedblack mayors • By1972,nearlyhalfofsouthernblackchildrenin integratedschools – More schools integrated in South than North • Aboutathirdofblackshadrisenintomiddleclass • Kingleftshininglegacyofracialprogress,buthewas cutdownwhenjobfarfromdone VI.VietnamVexations – Viet Cong(guerillasloyaltoNorthVietnamese communists)attackedU.S.airbaseatPleiku, SouthVietnam,February 1965 – Johnsonorderedretaliatorybombingraidsagainst military installationsinNorthVietnam – Forfirsttime,orderedU.S.combattroopsto SouthVietnam • Bymid-March,“OperationRollingThunder” infull swing—regularbombingagainstNorthVietnam • Before1965ended,184,000Americantroopsinvolved 11 10/28/16 VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) • Johnsonhadtakenslipperypathtoward“escalation” ofU.S.troopstodriveenemytodefeat • GuerrillaenemymatchedeveryAmericanincrease • SouthVietnamesebecamespectatorsaswarbecame Americanized • CorruptandcollapsiblegovernmentsinSaigon succeededeachother • YetU.S.A.claimedtobedefendingademocratically • “Hawks” defendedwarasnecessarytoshowU.S. “commitment” tofulfillnumeroustreatypledgesto resistcommunistencroachment p892 VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) • JohnsonsteadilyraisedmilitarystakesinVietnam – By 1968, ahalf million troops there and annual bill for war exceeded $30 billion – Still end nowhere in sight • U.S.A.couldnot defeatenemyinVietnam, but itseemedtobebringing defeatupon itself – Worldreactions: • SeveralnationsexpelledPeaceCorpsvolunteers • deGaullewithdrewFrancefromNATOin1966 – Ordered all American troops out of France 12 10/28/16 VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) – Overcommitmenttied America'shandselsewhere – InSix-DayWar (1967),Israel: • DefeatedEgypt,Jordan,andSyria • GainedterritoriesinSinaiPeninsula,GolanHeights, GazaStrip,andWestBankofJordanRiver,including Jerusalem(seeMap39.2) – VictorybroughtonemillionresentfulPalestinian ArabsunderdirectIsraelicontrol – Another350,000Palestinianrefugeesfledto neighboringJordan VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) • IsraellateragreedtowithdrawfromSinaiafter signingapeacetreatywithEgypt • Israelrefusedtorelinquishotherareaswithouta treaty • BeganmovingJewishsettlersintoheavilyArabdistrict ofWestBank – Six-DayWarintensifiedproblemsofvolatile MiddleEast • IntractablestandoffbetweenIsraelisandPalestinians VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) – DomesticdiscontentfesteredoverVietnam: • • • • • • • Campus“teach-ins” in1965 Graduallyprotestsgrewtotidal-waveproportions Draftclaimedmoreandmoreyoungmen ThousandsofdraftregistrantsfledtoCanada Otherspubliclyburneddraftcards Hundredsofthousandsmarchedinprotest ManyAmericansfeltpangsofconscienceatburning peasanthutsandusingdestructiveweapons 13 10/28/16 VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) – Congress'soppositiontoVietnam: • CenteredinSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations, headedbySenatorWilliamFulbright – Held series of televised hearings in 1966 and 1967 – Public came to feel they had been deceived about causes and “winnability” ofwar • “Credibilitygap” openedbetweengovernmentand public – Withinadministrationitself: • DoubtsdeepenedaboutwisdomofwarinVietnam – When Defense SecretaryMcNamara expressed misgivings about war, he was eased out ofoffice VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) • By1968,brutalandfutilestrugglehadbecomelongest andmostunpopularforeignwartodateforU.S.A. • Casualties(killedandwounded)alreadyexceeded 100,000 • MorebombsdroppedonVietnam,thanonallenemy territoryinWWII • Governmentutterlyfailedtoexplaintothepeoplewhat wassupposedtobeatstakeinVietnam VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) • Johnson: • OrderedCIA,inclearviolationofitscharter,tospyon domesticantiwaractivists • EncouragedFBItoturnitscounterintelligence program,“Cointelpro,” againstpeacemovement – “Cointelpro” falsely labeled leading “doves” as communist sympathizers – Tactics made FBIlook like totalitarian state's secret police rather than guardian of American democracy 14 10/28/16 VI.VietnamVexations(cont.) • Evidencemounted thatUSAtrapped inacivil war(motivated rebels vs.brutalgovernment) – Yet LBJclungtostrategyofratchetingup pressurebitbybit – StubbornlyassuredAmericansthathecouldsee “thelightattheendofthetunnel” – Togrowing numbersofAmericans,itseemedLBJ benton“saving” Vietnambydestroyingit p892 VII.VietnamTopples Johnson • January1968, communist offensivelaunched onTet, VietnameseNewYear • VietCongattacked27SouthVietnamesecities, includingcapitalSaigon • ShowedJohnson'sstrategyofcontinualescalationnot working • Tetoffensiveendedinmilitarydefeatbutpolitical victoryforVietCong – U.S.public opinion increasingly demanded end to war 15 10/28/16 VII.VietnamTopples Johnson (cont.) – American militaryleaders respondedtoTetwith requestfor200,000moretroops • Requeststaggeredmanypolicymakers – LBJchallengedwithinhisownparty: • EugeneMcCarthyreceived41.4%ofvoteinNew HampshireprimaryonMarch12,1968 • Johnson'sstarfellfurtherfourdayslaterwhenRobert F.Kennedyenteredracefornomination – Kennedy stirred passionate response among workers, African Americans, Latinos, and young people VII.VietnamTopples Johnson (cont.) – Mar.31:Johnsonannouncedhewouldfreeze troopslevelsandscalebackbombing • Declaredhewouldnotbeacandidatein1968election – Johnson's“abdication” hadeffectofpreserving military statusquo • Heheld“hawks” incheck,whileofferinghimselfasa sacrificetomilitant“doves” • U.S.A.couldmaintainmaximumacceptablelevelof militaryactivityinVietnam,whiletryingtonegotiatea settlement p893 16 10/28/16 VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof 1968 – 1968oneofhottestpoliticalseasonsinU.S.history • VicepresidentHubertH.HumphreywasLBJ'sheir apparentforDemocraticnomination • MeanwhileMcCarthyandKennedydueledinprimaries – On June 5, 1968, Kennedy killed by Arab immigrant resentful of RFK's pro-Israel views • AntiwargroupsconvergedonDemocraticconventionin Chicago,August1968 • Exasperatedbysomemilitantdemonstrators,police brokeintoa“policeriot” onguiltyandinnocentalike • Humphreygainednominationonfirstballotbecause processprivilegedpartyofficialsoverprimaryresults p894 VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes of1968(cont.) – Republicanconvention,MiamiBeach • RichardM.Nixonbecamecandidateacceptableto Goldwaterconservativesaswellaspartymoderates • TappedMaryland'sGovernorSpiroT.Agnewas runningmatetoappealtowhitesoutherners – Agnew tough on dissidents and black militants • PlatformcalledforvictoryinVietnamandstrong anticrimepolicy • “Spoiler” thirdpartyticket—AmericanIndependent party—headedbyGeorgeC.Wallace – Gained fame with his opposition toCivil Rights Movement 17 10/28/16 VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes of1968(cont.) – Between positionsofRepublicansand DemocratsonVietnam,therewaslittle choice: • Bothcandidatescommittedtocontinuewaruntil enemysettledfor“honorablepeace” (i.e.,U.S.win) • Millionsof“doves” hadnoplacetoroost – Many refused to vote at all • Humphrey,scorchedbyLBJbrand,wentdownto defeatasloyalprisonerofhischief'spolicies VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes of1968(cont.) – Nixonwon: • 301electoralvotes,43.4%ofpopulartally(31,785,480) • Humphrey:191electoralvotes,42.7ofpopularvotes (31,275,166)(seeMap37.2) • HoweverNixon – Faced Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress – Carried not asingle major city – Received no clear mandate to do anything – A minority president who owed his election to divisions over war and protest against unfair draft, crime, and rioting Map 37-2 p895 18 10/28/16 VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes of1968(cont.) – Wallace: • Wonimpressive9,906,473popularvotes • 46electoralvotes,allfromfivestatesofDeepSouth – four of which Goldwater had carried in 1964 • Wallaceamassedlargestthird-partypopularvotein U.S.historytothatpoint • Lastthird-partycandidatetowinanyelectoralvotes – Ross Perot in 1992 enjoyed a greater popular vote margin but won no states (see Map 40.1) • Wallacedemonstratedcontinuingpowerof “populist” politics—appealtovoters' fearsand resentments VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof 1968(cont.) – JohnsonreturnedtoTexasinJanuary1969,only todiefouryearslater: • Hadsignificantachievementsincivilrightsandhelpto poor • By1966LBJsinkingintoVietnamquicksand • Soaringwarcostsconsumedtaxdollars • WaronPovertymetresistanceandwouldeventually godownindefeat VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakes of1968(cont.) • JohnsoncrucifiedhimselfoncrossofVietnam • ChosetodefendU.S.footholdandenlargeconflict ratherthanwithdraw • Decisionnottoescalatefightingfurtherin1968 offended“hawks,” andhisrefusaltobackoff altogetherantagonized“doves” 19 10/28/16 IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe 1960s – Strugglesof1960sagainstracism,poverty,andwarin Vietnam hadmomentousculturalconsequences: – Negative attitudes toward all kinds of authority took hold – Many young people lost traditional moral rudders – Conventional wisdom and inherited ideas cameunder fire – MainlineProtestantdenominationsweakened • Weeklychurchgoingdeclinedfrom48%inlate1950sto 41%in1970s • LiberalProtestantchurchessufferedmost – Increasingly ceded religious authority to conservative evangelicals – While surrendering cultural authority to secular professionals and academic social scientists IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe 1960s(cont.) • AseducatedAmericansbecameincreasinglysecular, lesseducatedbecamemorereligious • Religiousupheavaloccurredintradition-bound RomanCatholicChurchaftersecondVaticanCouncil • Skepticismaboutauthorityhaddeephistoricalroots inAmericanculture,includingin1950s: – “Beat” movement rejected culture and politics of decade – Movies like Rebel Without a Cause (1955) with young actor James Dean expressed restless frustration of many young people IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe 1960s(cont.) – Disaffectionofyoungcrescendoedin1960sasBaby Boomreachedcollegeage: • 1offirstprotestsagainstauthoritybrokeoutatUniversity ofCaliforniaatBerkeleyin1964 – Free Speech Movement—students objected to administrative ban on use ofcampus space for political debate • ProtestsblossomedoverVietnamandsoonsawriseofselfconscious“counterculture” opposedtotraditionalways • SocialupheavalfarfromAmerican-onlyphenomenon – Across globe, youth-driven political and social conflict roiled – Helped by global reach of youth pop culture, especially music 20 10/28/16 p896 p897 p898 21 10/28/16 IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe 1960s(cont.) • 1960switnessed“sexualrevolution”: – Introduction ofbirth control pill (1960) made pregnancies easier to avoid and sexual appetites easier to satisfy – Mattachine Society, founded in Los Angeles in 1951, a pioneering society advocating gayrights – Stonewall Rebellion at New York City's Stonewall Inn(1969) proved turning point as victims of police brutality fought back – In1980s, worries about sexually transmitted diseases like genital herpes and AIDS(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) slowed, but did not reverse, sexual revolution p899 IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe 1960s(cont.) • Launchedinyouthfulidealism,manyofdecade's “revolutions” sputteredoutinviolenceandcynicism • StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS): – Once at forefront of antipoverty and antiwar campaigns – Spawned underground terrorist group called Weathermen • Peacefulcivilrightsdemonstrationsgavewayto urbanriots • ExperimentswithmarijuanaandLSDspawned underworldofdruglordsandaddicts • Criticsdenouncedself-indulgentromanticismof “flowerchildren” 22 10/28/16 IX.TheCultureUpheavalofthe 1960s(cont.) – Supportershailed“greening” ofAmerica • Materialismandimperialismreplacedbynew consciousnessofhumanvalues – Upheavalsof1960scanbeattributedtothreeP's: • Youthfulpopulationbulge • ProtestsagainstracismandVietnamWar • Prosperitythatseemedpermanentfixtureofpostwarera – “Counterculture” maynothavereplacedolder values,butitweakened theirgrip,perhaps permanently X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar – InauguratedonJan.20,1969,Nixonwas: • Anunlikelyconciliatorofclashingforcesripping Americansocietyapart – Solitary and suspicious – Brittle and testy in faceof opposition – Bitterly resented “liberal establishment” • Yet,hebroughtonehugevaluableassettoWhite House: – Broad knowledge and thoughtful expertise in foreign affairs – Applied himself to put America's foreign-policy in order • Firstgoal:quietuproaroverVietnam X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar (cont.) • Vietnamization policy: • Withdrawthe540,000troopsinSouthVietnamover anextendedperiod • SouthernVietnamese—withU.S.money,weapons, training,andadvice—wouldgraduallytakeoverwar • NixonDoctrine thusevolved: • ProclaimedU.S.A.wouldhonoritsexistingdefense commitments • Infuture,allieswouldhavetofighttheirownwars withoutsupportoflargebodiesofU.S.troops 23 10/28/16 X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar (cont.) • NixonsoughttowinVietnamwarbyothermeans – Without further spilling American blood • Advocatingimmediatewithdrawal,antiwarprotesters stagedbignationalVietnammoratoriuminOct.1969 • Nixonlaunchedcounteroffensivebyappealingtosilent majoritywhopresumablysupportedwar – His appeal deeply divisive – VP Agnew attacked“nattering nabobs of negativism” who demanded quick end to war – In1970, Nixon sneered at student protesters as “bums” X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar (cont.) – ByJan.1970,Vietnamhadbecamevery unpopular,evenamongU.S.troopsinfield – Armed forcesinVietnamlargelycomposedof leastprivileged youngAmericans – Early inwar, AfricanAmericans: • Disproportionatelyrepresentedinarmy • Accountedforhighestshareofcombatfatalities X.Nixon“Vietnamizes” theWar (cont.) – U.S.soldiers: • FoughtVietnameseaswellasbooby-trappedswamps andsteamingjungles • Unabletotellfriendfromfoeamongpeasants • Drugabuse,mutiny,andsabotagedulledfighting edge • Moraleplummetedfurtherwithrumorsthatsoldiers “fragged” theirofficers—murderedthemwith fragmentationgrenades • Revelationsin1970about1968slaughterinMyLai deepeneddomesticdisgustwithwar 24 10/28/16 p900 XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar – OnApr.29,1970Nixon,withoutconsulting Congress,orderedU.S.troopstocleanoutenemy sanctuariesinofficiallyneutralCambodia – Massivecampusriotsoverthisnewestescalation: • AtKentStateUniversity inOhio,jumpyNationalGuard firedintonoisycrowd,killingfourandwoundingmany more • AthistoricallyblackJacksonStateCollege,Mississippi, highwaypatroldischargedvolleys,killingtwostudents p901 25 10/28/16 XI.Cambodianizing theVietnam War(cont.) – NixonwithdrewtroopsfromCambodiaonJune 29,1970,afteronlytwomonths – ResultsofCambodianinvasion: • Amplifiedbitternessbetween“hawks” and“doves” • Disillusionmentwith“whitey'swar” increasedamong AfricanAmericansinarmedforces • Senate(butnotHouse)repealedGulfofTonkinblank checkthatCongressgaveJohnsonin1964 • Youthonlyslightlymollifiedwhengovernment reduceddraftcallsandshortenedperiodof draftability – On a lottery basis, from eight years to one year p901 XI.Cambodianizing theVietnam (cont.) • Youthpleased,thoughnotpacified,in1971when26th Amendmentloweredvotingageto18(seeAppendix) • Newcombustiblesfueledfiresofantiwardiscontent inJune1971: – Former Pentagon official leaked to New YorkTimes the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study – Documented war's blunders and deceptions, especially provoking of 1964 North Vietnamese attack in Gulf of Tonkin 26 10/28/16 XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing (Peking)andMoscow • Dramatic initiatives inBeijing andMoscow: • TwomajorCommunistpowersclashedover interpretationofMarxismaswellasborderbetween them • NixonrealizedChinese-SoviettensionaffordedU.S.A. opportunitytoplayoneantagonistagainsttheother • AndenlistaidofbothinpressuringNorthVietnaminto peace • HenryKissingerhadbeenmeetingsecretlywithNorth VietnameseofficialsinParistonegotiateendtowar • Hewasmeanwhilepreparingpresident'spathtoBeijing andMoscow XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing (Peking)andMoscow (cont.) – July 1971: Nixon announced he had accepted invitation to visit Communist China the following year – Made his historic journey in February 1972 – Capped visit with Shanghai Communiqué: » Inwhich two nations agreed to “normalize” relationship » Important part of accordwas America's acceptance of “one-China” policy » Implied lessened American commitment to independence ofTaiwan XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing (Peking)andMoscow (cont.) – Nixon next traveled to Moscow in May 1972: » To play “China card” in game ofhigh-stakes diplomacy with Kremlin » Soviets ready to deal with United States • Nixon'svisitusheredineraofdétente: – Relaxed tension—with major communist powers • Andproducedseveralsignificantagreementsin1972 – Most important, USA and USSR agreed to anti-ballistic missile (ABM) treaty and to series of arms-reduction negotiations known as SALT(Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) » Aimed at freezing numbers oflong-range missiles for five years 27 10/28/16 XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing (Peking)andMoscow (cont.) – ABM and SALT accords afirst step toward slowing arms race – Yetboth forged ahead with development of“MIRVs” (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles) » Put a number of warheads on a single missile • Nixon's détente diplomacy did, tosome extent, de-ice Cold War XII.Nixon's DétentewithBeijing (Peking)andMoscow (cont.) • Nixon remained staunchly anticommunist • Opposed election ofMarxist Salvador Allende topresidency ofChile in1970 • Allende diedduring anarmyattackonhis headquarters in1973 • Nixon warmlyembraced Allende's successor, military dictator General AugustoPinochet p902 28 10/28/16 XIII.ANewTeamontheSupreme Bench • Nixon andSupreme Court • In1968,Nixonlashedoutagainst“permissiveness” and “judicialactivism” ofWarrenCourt • WarrenCourtaffectedsexualfreedom,criminalrights, practiceofreligion,civilrights,andrepresentation • Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965):Courtvoidedstatelaw thatbanneduseofcontraceptives,evenamong marriedcouples,becauseof“rightofprivacy” • Gideonv.Wainwright(1963):Courtheldthatall criminaldefendantsentitledtolegalcounsel,evenif toopoortoaffordit XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme Bench(cont.) • Escobedo(1964)andMiranda(1966)ensuredrightof accusedtoremainsilentandenjoyprotections • Mirandawarning–policemustreadtosuspects – Rulingssoughttopreventabusivepolicetactics • Toconservativesseemedtocoddlecriminalsand subvertlawandorder – ConservativesalsoobjectedtoCourt'sviewson religion: XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme Bench(cont.) – InEngelv. Vitale(1962)andSchoolDistrictof AbingdonTownshipv.Schempp(1963): • JusticesarguedFirstAmendment'sseparationof churchandstatemeantpublicschoolscouldnot requireprayerorBiblereading • Socialconservativesraisedanewbattlecry“Impeach EarlWarren” (seeChap.36) – From1954,Courtcameunderrelentless criticism,bitterestsinceNewDealdays • Grappledwithproblemslegislaturesfailedtoaddress 29 10/28/16 XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme Bench(cont.) • Fulfilling campaignpromise, Nixon tried to changeCourt's philosophical complexion: • Soughtappointeeswhowould: – Strictly interpret Constitution – Cease “meddling” in social and political questions – Not coddle radicals or criminals • AppointedWarrenE.BurgertosucceedEarlWarren • Beforeendof1971,Nixonhadappointedfour conservativestoCourt XIII.ANewTermontheSupreme Bench(cont.) • Nixon learned that onceseated, justices decide according to conscience, notaccording topresident's expectations • Burger Court provedreluctant todismantle “liberal” rulings ofWarren Court – ControversialandmomentousRoev.Wade(1973) whichlegalizedabortion(seeChap.38) p903 30 10/28/16 XIV.NixonontheHomeFront • Oversawbigexpansion ofwelfare programs thatconservative Republicans denounced: • IncreasedappropriationsforFoodStamps,Medicaid, andAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDC) • Addednewprogram:SupplementalSecurityIncome (SSI)toassistindigent,aged,blind,anddisabled • AutomaticSocialSecuritycost-of-livingincreases • Implementedso-calledPhiladelphiaPlan (1969): – Required trade unions toestablish “goals and time-tables” for hiring black apprentices XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.) • Philadelphia Plan: • Required1,000sofemployerstomeethiringquotasor establish“set-asides” forminoritysubcontractors • Alteredmeaningof“affirmativeaction” – From protect individuals against discrimination – To program that conferred privileges on certain groups • SupremeCourtwentalongwithNixon'sapproach – Griggs v.DukePower Co.(1971): Court banned intelligence tests or other devices that had effectof excluding minorities or women from certain jobs XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.) • Onlysureprotectionagainstchargeofdiscriminationwas tohireminoritiesoradmitminoritystudents – Inproportion to their presence in population • NixonandCourtopenednewemploymentand educationalopportunitiesforminoritiesandwomen • Criticsprotestedchangesas“reversediscrimination” – AnotherNixonlegacy: • 1970creationofEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA) • RachelCarson'sSilentSpring(1962)exposedpoisonous effectsofpesticides 31 10/28/16 p904 XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.) • April22,1970,millionsaroundworldcelebratedfirst EarthDay: – To raise awareness and to encourage leaders to act – Congress passed Clean Air Act (1970) and Endangered Species Act (1973) – EPA made progress in reducing automobile emissions and cleaning up befouled waterways and toxic waste sites • Federalgovernmentexpandedregulatoryreachon behalfofworkersandconsumers – 1970 Nixon signed Occupational Safetyand Health Administration (OSHA) into law XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.) – Created agencydedicated toimproving working conditions » Prevent work-related accidents and death » Issue safety standards • ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC): – Held companies accountable for selling dangerous products • Businesscriticsdecried“nannystate” • 1971:Nixonimposed90-daywageandpricefreeze • HethentookU.S.A.offgoldstandardanddevalued dollar – Two actions ended “Bretton Woods” system ofinternational currency stabilization that had functioned since end ofWWII (see Chap. 35) 32 10/28/16 XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.) – Devisedplan—calledsouthernstrategy—togain reelection in1972 – Appointed conservative Supreme Court justices – Soft-pedaled civil rights – Opposed school busing toachieve racial balance – Goal:convertdisillusionedwhitesouthern DemocratstoRepublicans – Set inmotionsweepingpoliticalrealignment thateventuallytransformedpartysystem XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972 • Fouryearssince Nixon promised toend Vietnamwarand“win” peace • 1972:whenNorthVietnamburstthrough demilitarizedzoneseparatingtwoVietnams,Nixon launchedmassivebombingattacks • ContinuingVietnamconflictspurredriseofSouth DakotasenatorGeorgeMcGovernto1972 Democraticnomination • Helpedbychangesinnominationsystemthat increasedimportanceofprimaryelections – New system emphasized media politicking and activist base XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972 (cont.) • McGovern usednewpopulist process – PromisedtopullremainingtroopsoutofVietnam inninetydays: • Earnedhimbackingoflargeantiwarelementinparty • Hisappealtoracialminorities,feminists,leftists,and youthalienatedtraditionalworking-classDemocrats • Nixon emphasized hehadwound down “Democratic war” inVietnam – From540,000toabout30,000troops 33 10/28/16 XV.TheNixonLandslide of1972 (cont.) • Hiscandidacyreceivedaddedboosttwelvedays beforeelectionwhenKissingerannounced – “Peace is at hand” and an agreement would be reached in a few days • Nixonwonlandslide: – Won everystate exceptMassachusetts and nonstate District of Columbia (see Appendix) – Received 520 electoral votes to 17 for McGovern – Popular majority of47,169,911 to 29,170,383 votes • McGoverncountedonyoungvote,butlessthanhalf 18-20agegroupevenbotheredtoregistertovote p905 XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia andtheWarPowersAct – Doveofpeace“athand” justbeforeballoting,took flightafterelection: • Nixonlaunchedfurioustwo-weekbombing • NorthVietnamagreedtocease-fireinTreatyofParis(Jan. 23,1973)nearlythreemonthsafterpeaceprematurely proclaimed • Nixonhailedcease-fireas“peacewithhonor,” butboast ranghallowas“peace” littlemorethanU.S.retreat – United States would withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops and reclaim 560 American prisoners ofwar – North Vietnam allowed to keep 145,000 troops in South Vietnam 34 10/28/16 XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia andtheWarPowersAct(cont.) • Constitutionality ofU.S.warinCambodia: – July1973:publiclearnedAirForcehadsecretly bombedCambodia3,500timessinceMar.1969 • Whileforaysgoingon,U.S.officials,includingNixon, hadswornCambodianneutralitybeingrespected • Defiancefollowedsecretiveness: – Nixon continued bombing Cambodia even after Vietnam cease-fire – Repeatedly vetoed congressional efforts to stop bombing XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia andtheWarPowersAct(cont.) – Years ofbombingwoundedCambodia: • Blasteditspeople • Shreddeditseconomy • Revolutionizeditspolitics – CambodianssufferedsadisticheelofPolPot: • Twomilliondied • Potforcedfromofficeby1978Vietnameseinvasion XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodia andtheWarPowersAct(cont.) • 1973 WarPowersAct overNixon's veto: • RequiredpresidentreporttoCongresswithin48 hoursaftercommittingtroopstoforeignconflictor “substantially” enlargingcombatunitsabroad • Suchalimitedauthorizationwouldendwithin60days unlessextendedbyCongressfor30days • Actmanifestationof“NewIsolationism,” moodof cautionandrestraintabroad • DraftendedinJanuary1973 – Future members ofarmed forces would be volunteers 35 10/28/16 XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandthe EnergyCrisis • YomKippur Warerupted October 1973 • SyriaandEgyptattackedIsraeltoregainlandlost duringSix-DayWar(1967) • KissingerflewtoMoscowtorestrainSoviets,who werearmingattackers • Nixonplacednuclearforcesonalertandordered airliftof$2billioninwarmaterialstoIsrael • IsraelisturnedtideandthreatenedCairobefore U.S.A.brokereduneasycease-fire p907 XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoand theEnergyCrisis (cont.) – U.S.policyofbackingIsraelagainstitsoil-rich neighborsexactedheavypenalty: • Oct.1973,OPECannouncedoilembargotoU.S.A.and thoseEuropeanalliessupportingIsrael • Oil-richArabstatesalsocutoilproduction • Oilshortagetriggeredmajoreconomicrecession,not onlyinUnitedStates,butalsoFranceandBritain • Inincreasinglyglobalized,interconnectedworld,all nationsfeltcrunchof“energycrisis” 36 10/28/16 p907 XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoand theEnergyCrisis (cont.) – Five monthsofembargoendederaofcheapand abundantenergy – Since1948,U.S.A.hadbeennetoilimporter U.S.oilproductionpeakedin1970,thandeclined YetAmericanstripledtheiroilusagesinceWWII Automobilesincreased250%between1949and1972 By1974,Americaoil-addictedandvulnerabletoany interruptioninsupplies • MiddleEastattainednewimportancetoU.S.interests • • • • IVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandthe EnergyCrisis (cont.) • OPECquadrupled price forcrude oil after lifting embargo in1974 – Results: • HugeoilbillsdisruptedU.S.balanceofinternational tradeandfurtherfueledragingfireofinflation • U.S.tookleadtoformInternationalEnergyAgencyin 1974ascounterweighttoOPEC • VarioussectorsofU.S.economy,includingautos,began toadjusttodawningageofenergydependency • E.g.,nationalspeedlimit(55)toconservefuel 37 10/28/16 p909 38