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3/22/2016
LINES OF
DESCENT
FROM
COMMON
ANCESTRY
EK 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved
core processes and features that evolved
and are widely distributed among
organisms today.
EK 1.B.2: Phylogenetic trees and cladograms
are graphical representations (models of
evolutionary history that can be tested
Illustrative examples are titled in blue
Overview:
Investigating the Tree of Life
• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species
or group of related species
• The discipline of systematics classifies organisms
and determines their evolutionary relationships
– Systematists
• Use fossil, molecular, and genetic data to infer evolutionary
relationships
• Reconstruct phylogeny (evolutionary history) of a group of
organisms
– This history is illustrated in phylogenetic trees.
– Phylogenetic trees identify likely relationships among species.
Classification
• A hierachical classification will group species into
broader taxonomic categories.
• Species that appear to be closely related are
grouped into the same genus.
– For example, the leopard, Panthera pardus, belongs to
a genus that includes the African lion (Panthera leo)
and the tiger (Panthera tigris).
– Biology’s taxonomic scheme formalizes our tendency
to group related objects.
Binomial
Nomenclature
• Under the binomial system,
each species is assigned a
two-part Latinized name, a
binomial.
– The first part, the genus, is
the closest group to which a
species belongs.
– The second part, refers to one
species within each genus.
– The first letter of the genus is
capitalized and both names
are italicized
– For example, Linnaeus
assigned to humans the
scientific name Homo sapiens.
Taxonomy
• The identification & naming of species
– Genera are grouped
into progressively
broader categories:
family, order, class,
phylum, kingdom & domain.
• Each taxonomic level is more
comprehensive than the previous.
– As an example, all species of cats are
mammals, but not all mammals are cats.
• The named taxonomic unit at any level is called a taxon.
– Example: Pinus is a taxon at the genus level, the generic name
for various species of pine trees.
– Mammalia, a taxon at the class level, includes all the many
orders of mammals.
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Phylogenetic trees
• Phylogenetic
trees reflect the
hierarchical
classification of
taxonomic
groups nested
within more
inclusive groups.
Building Trees
• Analyzing the taxonomic distribution of
homologies enables us to identify the
sequence in which derived characters
evolved during vertebrate phylogeny.
• Two approaches to Phylogenetic
Systematics
– Phenetics
• Determines taxonomic affinities on
measurable similarities and differences.
– Cladistics
• classifies organisms according to the
order in time that taxonomic groups
diverge.
Phylogeny
• A phylogeny is determined by a
variety of evidence including
fossils, molecular data,
anatomy, and other features.
• Most systematists use cladistic
analysis, developed by a
German entomologist Willi
Hennig to analyze the data.
• A phylogenetic diagram or
cladogram is constructed
from a series of dichotomies.
Cladistics
• Primary criterion is common ancestry
• Each branch or clade can be nested within larger clades
• A clade consists of an ancestral species and all its
descendants
• Groups that do not fit this definition are unacceptable in
cladistics (although further investigation may show their usefulness )
• Primary criterion is common
ancestory
• Clades-ancestral species with all of its
descendents
• Monophyletic, paraphyletic, and
polyphyletic groupings
Some Rules
• Determining which similarities between species
are relevant to grouping the species in a clade is a
challenge.
• It is especially important to distinguish similarities
that are based on shared ancestry or homology
from those that are based on convergent
evolution or analogy.
• In convergent evolution, natural selection shapes
analogous structures based on ecological roles.
• As a general rule, the more homologous parts that two
species share, the more closely related they are.
– Adaptation can obscure homology and convergence can create
misleading analogies.
• Also, the more complex two structures are, the less
likely that they evolved independently.
– For example, the skulls of a human and chimpanzee are
composed not of a single bone, but a fusion of multiple bones
that match almost perfectly.
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Figuring Stuff Out
• Systematists must sort through homologous features or
characters to separate shared derived characters from
shared primitive characters.
• A shared derived character is unique to a particular
clade.
Ex. Feathers
• A shared primitive (ancestral) character is found not
only in the clade being analyzed, but older clades too.
Ex. Teeth
• All species exhibit a mix of both types of characters and
they provide information about evolutionary relationships.
Homology and Analogy
• Homology
– likeness attributed to
shared ancestry
• Analogy
– similarities due to
convergent evolution,
which is the acquisition of
similar characteristics in
species due to sharing
similar ecological roles,
NOT a common ancestor!
Traits Used In Classification
• Morphological
Characteristics
– Visible, measurable
traits that distinguish
groups of organisms
from one another
– Reflect genetic
differences
– Are preserved in the
fossil record
• Using Molecular Methods
• The application of molecular methods and data
for comparing species and tracing phylogenies
has accelerated revision of taxonomic trees.
– If homology reflects common ancestry, then
comparing genes and proteins among organisms
should provide insights into their evolutionary
relationships
– The more recently two species have branched from a
common ancestor, the more similar their DNA and
amino acid sequences should be
• These data for many species are available via the internet
Using DNA
• Molecular systematics makes it possible to assess
phylogenetic relationships that cannot be
measured by comparative anatomy and other
non-molecular methods.
– This includes groups that are too closely related to
have accumulated much morphological divergence.
– At the other extreme, some groups (e.g., fungi,
animals, and plants) have diverged so much that little
morphological homology remains.
• Most molecular systematics is based on a comparison of
nucleotide sequences in DNA, or RNA.
– Each nucleotide position along a stretch of DNA represents an
inherited character as one of the four DNA bases: A (adenine), G
(guanine), C (cytosine), and T (thymine).
– Systematists may compare hundreds or thousands of adjacent
nucleotide positions and among several DNA regions to assess
the relationship between two species.
– This DNA sequence analysis provides a quantitative tool for
constructing cladograms with branch points defined by
mutations in DNA sequence.
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Molecular Clocks
• The timing of evolutionary events has rested
primarily on the fossil record.
• Recently, molecular clocks have been applied to
place the origin of taxonomic groups in time.
– Molecular clocks are based on the observation that
some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates.
– For these regions, the number of nucleotide and
amino acid substitutions between two lineages is
proportional to the time that has elapsed since they
branched.
What does the Tree of Life look like???
• No one REALLY knows…some scientists even
predict a “ring of life”
• One thing we can be sure of….
…there are a LOT more singe-celled
organisms than multicellular.
Relatedness of all Eukaryotes
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Cytoskeleton
Membrane-bound organelles
Linear chromosomes
Endomembrane system
How accurate are those
molecular clocks?
• Proportional differences in DNA sequences can be
applied to access the relative chronology of branching in
phylogeny, but adjustments for absolute time must be
viewed with some caution.
– No genes mark time with a precise tick-tock accuracy in the rate
of base changes.
– Genes that make good molecular clocks have fairly smooth
average rates of change.
– Over time there may be chance deviations above and below the
average rate.
• The molecular clock approach assumes that much of the
change in DNA sequences is due to genetic drift (chance
events) and is selectively neutral.
Relatedness of Domains
• DNA & RNA are carriers of genetic information
through transcription, translation and replication.
• Major features of the genetic code are shared by all
modern living systems.
• Metabolic pathways are conserved
across all currently recognized domains.
Cladograms & Speciation
• Phylogenetic trees and
cladograms illustrate
speciation that has
occurred, in that
relatedness of any two
groups on the tree is
shown by how recently
two groups had a
common ancestor.
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Phylogenetics & Relatedness
• Morphological
similarities
• DNA/protein
sequence similarities
Phylogenetics are dynamic
• Use Biological data
• Mathematical &
computer models
• Current & emerging
knowledge
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