Download Sociology Revision * Research Methods

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Sociology Revision –
Research Methods
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Research Method’s
content page Types of data
Introduction
Validity
Questionnaires
Reliability
Represent
Sampling
Generalise
Ethnographic
Interviews
Observations
Positivism
Types of
interviews
Interpretivists
Extraneous
Ethical issues
What is research
methods?
• Sociologists use many different designs and
methods to study society and social behaviour.
Most sociological research involves ethnography, or
“field work” designed to represent the
characteristics of a population as fully as possible.
• In simple terms methodology can be defined as, it is
used to give a clear cut idea on what the
researcher is carrying out his or her research.
There are 2 main types of
research data…
Primary –
• This form of research refers to
investigation conducted by
an individual for the first time.
It is the information collected
by sociologist themselves for
their own purpose.
Secondary –
• Information that has been
collected or created by
someone else for their own
purpose, but which
sociologist can then use.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires consist of a set of questions gathered and compiled by a
researcher; completed by a group of respondents. Questionnaires are often a
form of primary research. There are several different types of questionnaires with
different ways of presenting questions:
• Closed questionnaires – also known as fixed choice questions, where the
respondents have predetermined answers from which they choose from;
usually by ticking the box. These types of questionnaire generate and gather
quantitative data, and sometimes known as structured questionnaires.
• Some questionnaires use measurement scales; this gauges the respondents
opinion on an issue.
• Open ended questionnaires – a space is left after the question for the
respondent to write down their own response. This type of questionnaire can
generate qualitative data.
ADV
DIS
Ways of administrating
questionnaires
• Post – Quick to reach a large sample, yet slow
respondent rates.
• Internet – Cheaper than posts, yet unsure who is
providing the answers and low response rate.
• Doorstep – Target appropriate sample, yet ethical
issues (privacy)
• Street – More representative, yet those who agree
to stop may be unrepresentative to the target
population.
Advantages of
questionnaires
• There are many practical advantages of using questionnaires
for example, they are a quick method of gathering data,
often from a wide geographical area. This can be linked to
representativeness, the larger number of people, the more
representative it is likely to be. Another advantage is that,
postal and internet questionnaires are cheaper than recruiting
and training interviewers. Also the data are easy to quantify
particularly where closed questions are used.
• Questionnaires are more reliable than interviews as, each
respondent is given identical set of questions, in the same
order with the same wording. More over there is no researcher
effect, as no interviewer is present. Any differences in answers
will therefore reflect real differences in respondents rather
than being a reflection of a non trustworthy data collection
instrument.
• There is no contact with the researcher and respondent
therefore extraneous variables are minimised.
Disadvantages of
questionnaires
•
There are many disadvantages of questionnaires for example, the data
collected is likely to be limited in detail as participants are restricted to
brief responses, most times, just a tick of a box or a check list. To
contribute to this, questionnaires are essentially snapshots as they only
give a picture of social reality at the moment when respondents answer
the question. Therefore they fail to capture changes in peoples attitude
and opinions. Another advantage of questionnaires is that they may
have low response rates which can affect representativeness and
generalisability. Those who do respondent are likely to be those with
strong views on the subject, which may lead to biased results; from which
generalizability's cannot be established. In addition to this, according to
interpretivists, data from questionnaires lack validity due to the fact that
they do not allow the researcher to ‘get inside’ the persons head and
share their meanings. It is therefore impossible to create a sense of
empathy. As well as this, interpretivists argue that questionnaires are likely
to impose the meanings of the researcher as, the researcher designed
the questions, with closed questions a range of questions are chosen by
the researcher etc. an ethical issue may also occur as the researcher is
not available to protect the respondents to make them feel at ease or to
reassure them. Extraneous variables may occur (social bias, Hawthorne
effect etc.) respondents may not understand the question or may lie.
Interviews
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Similarly with questionnaires, interviews involve asking questions.
The main difference is that questionnaires are completed by a
respondent whereas with interviews, questions are asked by an
interviewer and so involve social interaction between the
researcher and respondent. This interaction that takes place
brings along many advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:
The presence of an interviewer can help since they are there to
clarify any confusion or misunderstanding of questions.
A higher response rate is more likely as it is harder to ignore a
interviewer that ignore a questionnaire form that has arrived
through internet or post etc.
Disadvantages:
Interviews can be highly expensive and very time consuming
Through the interaction/presence of authority, many extraneous
variables may intervene.
Types of interviews
• The types of interviews differ in their level of structure. At
one extreme, there is such an unstructured interview,
sometimes called a informal interview; which resembles
an ordinary conversation, without any pre set questions.
Whereas on the other side of the spectrum, a totally
structured interview will involve a interviewer simply
reading a set of pre fixed closed questions and noting
the answer. In this case, the data collected will be
quantitative. Often, a semi structured interview is also
the case; here an interview is often on schedule, but the
interviewer is encouraged to allow the respondent to
explain and develop their answer.
More on
interviews
Structured interviews
• This form of interview is most common in sociology; it is
also known as formal interviews and they are widely
used in surveys. The interviewers are trained to take
respondents through a set of standardised questions on
a interview schedule; ensuring that every question is
asked in the same way to every respondent. This type of
interview is likely to be composed of closed questions
and fixed choice responses. The interviewer is trained to
be objective and maintain distance between
themselves and the respondents. The uniformity of
questioning aims to create reliable data so that
respondents answers can be compared, usually
statistically, to produce quantitative data.
Adv + Dis
Advantages and disadvantages
for structured interviews
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Along with structured interviews comes many advantages and
disadvantages:
Advantages:
Quick and easy to administer; therefore sample size can be large.
Representative results due to high response rates.
Produce comparable results as not all respondents answer the same.
Less bias than unstructured
Preferred by positivists; produce quantitative data; reliable and verifiable.
Disadvantages:
to train the interviewer, it costs
May produce unrepresentative data as the people who are willing to be
interviewed may be untypical.
Fail to capture the dynamic nature of social life ; only snapshots at one
moment in time.
Low in validity; closed questionnaires may restrict all possible answers.
Presence of authority may produce extraneous variables.
The 4 main concepts
• In order for a piece of research to be regarded as
being highly efficacious and worthwhile, it must be
high in validity, reliability, generalisability and
representativeness.
Validity
There are 2 types of validity, these are:
Internal validity –
This form of validity refers to the meaning of whether the study
has tested what it set out to test; the degree to which the
observed effect was due to experimental manipulation rather
than extraneous variables.
External validity –
External validity refers to the degree to which a research finding
can be generalised; to other settings, to other people, over time.
In order for a test to be highly valid; both internal and external
validity must be highly met.
However, there are few issues for validity and not all findings can
be highly valid as, an example of one issue which may occur is:
• The respondents may not act or speak normally because they
are aware they are being researched (extraneous variables
may occur).
Reliability
• Reliability is the extent to which a test or procedure
produces similar results under consistent condition.
In order for data to be reliable, a different
researcher, or same researcher at a different time,
uses the same method of a piece of research and
still obtain the same results.
• However, in sociology it is difficult to get reliable
and consistent results; simply due to the fact that
people inconsistent and unreliable. Furthermore,
participant observation, a researching technique
used by many researchers, also produce unreliable
results as they are virtually impossible to replicate.
Representativeness/
Generalisability
• Representativeness and generalisability are two
concepts in sociology which are closely related;
they are often linked with the process of sampling
and the target population; how typical of the
research population it is. If the findings is highly
representativeness then the results can be
generalised.
Positivists
• Positivist argue that society should be studied as a
social science; it should involve repeating research
to generate statistics, numbers, trends and ratios,
which could be then compared with high reliability
and objectiveness. Society can therefore be
understood, predicted and controlled.
• Positivists favour all forms of quantitative data. Their
research focuses on measurements and collection
of numerical data that reflects their belief in a
scientific approach.
Interpretivists
• Interpretivists, also known as anti – positivists, argue that the
study of society as a science is not possible since the all
people are not the same and therefore cannot be treated
the same; to assume that they all behave in a similar manner,
like lab animals or certain chemicals is fundamentally wrong.
• In order to gain a true understanding of human behaviour and
their experiences a in-depth enquiry as to ‘why’ they behave
as they do is required.
• They argue that the real aim of sociological research should
be to experience the social world of people that are being
studied; develop empathy with them and to put yourself in
their shoes.
• Anti – positivists favour the qualitative methods simply due to
the fact that that their research focuses on interpreting
meanings and feelings; which is best expressed in words rather
than numerical form.
More information
Overview
Ethical issues
• Ethics refers to moral issues of right and wrong.
Sociologists aim to be ethical in the way they study
people. Consequently BSA – the British Sociological
Association set out guidelines on how sociologists
should conduct their research ethically.
• The BSA have guidelines which a sociologist must
meet in order to be able to class his/her research as
highly ethical. Click on the macros to find out more
on a few of the ethical issues.
Consent
Deception
/Debrief
Privacy
Withdraw
Protection
Informed Consent
• This refers to the meaning that participants have the right to
be given comprehensive information concerning the nature
and the purpose of the research and their roles in it; in order
that they can make an informed decision about whether to
participate.
• This is also a basic human right; established after the second
world war.
• However, even if the researcher have sought and obtained
consent does not always mean that the participants know
what they have let themselves in for. Epstien and Lasagna
found with their study in 1969, that only a third of participants
really know what they have let themselves in for.
• Researchers do not always want to gain this as it may lead P’s
to start to guess the aims of the study; producing invalid results.
Deception and Debrief
• Deception refers to the extent where a participant
is not told the true aims of a study (what
participation will involve) and thus cannot give truly
informed consent.
• Participants must be fully debriefed at the end of a
study. They must be given a general idea of what
the researcher was investigating and why, and their
part in their research should be explained. They
must be told if they have been deceived and be
given reasons why. They must be asked if they have
any questions which should be answered as truthful
and honest as possible.
Privacy and
Confidentiality
• Participants and the data gained from them must
be kept anonymous unless they give their full
consent. No names must be used in research
reports.
• Privacy refers to the meaning of a person’s right to
control the flow of information about themselves. A
researcher may guarantee anonymity but even
then it may still be obvious who is participating in
the study.
• The data protection act makes confidentiality a
legal right; it is only available for personal data to
be recorded if the data are not made available in
a form in which the participants are identified.
Right to Withdraw
• Participants should have the right to withdraw from
participating in a study if they feel uncomfortable in
any way, and should also have the right to refuse
permission for the researcher to use any data they
produce.
• Before the research is conducted; participants must
be aware that they have this option of withdrawing;
ensuring that they feel safe, secure and
comfortable.
Protection
• During the research, participants should not
experience any negative physical or psychological
effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem
or embarrassment.
• It is considered acceptable if the risk of harm is no
greater than ordinary life.
• Participants should be in the same state as they
were before they entered the research unless they
had given consent to be treated otherwise.
Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are factors of a experiment which may negatively effect the final
findings of a study. There are three main aspects of this variable as a whole;
Participant variable, Situational Variables and the Participant effect.
• Participant variable: is any characteristic of individual participants. Examples of
these characteristics are: age, motivation, experience, gender etc.)
• Situational variable: are those features of a research situation that may influence
participant behaviour and thus act as an EV’S. One example of a situational
example is ‘order effect’. This is a EV arising from the order in which conditions are
presented. Other examples are those such as time, temperature, noise etc. in
sociology, the 2 main situation variables are investigator effects and demand
characteristics. An investigator effect is anything that the experimenter does which
has an effect on the performance of the participant. This includes a indirect effect
(as a consequence of the investigator designing the experiment) or direct effect
(investigator interacting with the participants). A demand characteristic are the
actual cues in place; participants are aware of what the researcher expects to
find, or how they are to behave; therefore alter their performance to conform the
expectations.
• Participant effect: these effects occur when participants actively seek cues about
how to behave. Examples of this effect are the ‘Hawthorne effect’ and ‘Social
desirability bias’. The Hawthorne effect is the tendency to which participants alter
their behaviour merely due to the fact that they are being observed. Social
desirable bias is the tendency for participants to alter their behaviour in order to
be shown in the best possible light.
Sampling
•
A research population, also known as a target group refers to all those people
who could be included in a survey. To make the sample quick and cheap, the
researcher must choose a sample. This has to be representative to the target
group; so that what it true of the sample is true to the target population. In
sociology, the two main sampling techniques used as random and stratified.
Sampling
Technique
Definition
Strengths
Weaknesses
Random sample
Every member of the
population has an equal
chance of selection for the
same (taking names out of
a hat)
No researcher
influence
Chance that the
sample obtained may
not be truly
representative to the
target population
(more females than
males etc.)
Target population divided
according to the numbers
of people with the social
characteristics required.
Sample selected reflect the
proportions of these
characteristics.
Increases the
chances of
attaining a
representative
sample.
Stratified sample
No bias in selection
More complicated and
time consuming.
Ethnographic
• The purpose of ethnography is to describe the
culture and lifestyle of the group. It is a descriptive
account of social life and culture in a particular
social system based on detailed observations of
what people actually do. It is a research method
that I used by sociologists often when studying
groups. Weber called this ‘verstehen’ which refers
to the word ‘understand’ in German.
• Through ethnographic research a researcher can
sketch a clear picture of how social group behave;
he can empathise with them and understand the
why particular groups act in such a way.
Observations
• Observations refers to the meaning of simply looking at
what is being studied and recording data. Interpretivists
use observations for observing normal social life.
• This involves the researcher inserting themselves into a
natural setting of the social group being studied about
participating in and observing their daily activities.
• Positivists also see observations as essential, but they
tend to use it more in the context of observing the results
of experiments; they are much less likely to use
participant observations then interpretivists.
• Participant observation involves the researcher joining in
with the group being studied. The researcher has to
decide whether to be open or secretive. It is criticised by
positivists for being highly subjective and unscientific.
Covert
Overt
+ - of P’s
observations
Covert
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A covert observation refers to the extent of a observation that is not
open, acknowledged or displayed. It is hidden and kept covered from
participants; they are therefore not aware that they are being studied
on.
It in contrast with the ethnographic approach as the researcher can
sketch out a full picture, describe the culture and life style of people
being studied in the way they see themselves.
A covert observation leads to highly valid results due to the minimal
extraneous variables, as participants are not aware that they are being
studied; therefore will not alter their behaviour in any form. More over, the
researcher can enter forbidden areas and can be fully accepted and
trusted, they can immerse themselves totally in the group being studied.
This can generate a real sense of understanding of the views of the
group. However, there are also many disadvantages of this form of
observation; one of which is that there are many ethical issues. The
researcher may be in danger if his or her role is uncovered, it may place
the researcher in danger, especially is studying a deviant group. Further
more, it is morally wrong studying a group without their consent and
therefore they have been deceived to. Finally, if the group engages in
illegal activities, the researcher may have to engage into these.
Overt
• Overt observation refers to the form of observation in
which the researcher being open about the reason for
their presence in the field of study since the researcher is
given permission by the group. It is not hidden and kept
covered from participants; therefore they are aware
that being studied on.
• Alongside this form of observation comes many
advantages and disadvantages. An advantage this is
that the researcher can ask questions without the
participants getting suspicious; the researcher does not
have to lie and there are minimal ethical issues.
However, the observer may influence the behaviour of
the participant; extraneous variable may occur (social
bias/Hawthorn effect etc.)
Advantages and disadvantages of
participant observation
• Advantages:
• this type of research can sometimes be conducted by a single
research; without much preparation and therefore make the
initial costs low.
• It is difficult for participants to lie or mislead
• Researcher can understand the subject better they
experience some of the same things.
• Provides in depth studies.
• Disadvantages:
• Can be much more time consuming then questionnaires etc.
• Researchers lives may be disrupted (engaging in illegal
activities etc.)
• Practical difficulties in recording data (covert)
• Interpretations may be subjective as the researcher has to be
very selective about what is being reported.