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AP PSYCHOLOGY TOPICS AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES The following is a description of learning objectives for the major content areas covered in the AP Psychology Exam, as well as the approximate percentage of the multiple-choice section devoted to each area. This listing is not intended to be an exhaustive list of topics. I. HISTORY AND APPROACHES (2-4%) Psychology has evolved markedly since its inception as a discipline in 1879. There have been significant changes in the theories that psychologists use to explain behavior and mental processes. In addition, the methodology of psychological research has expanded to include a diversity of approaches to data gathering. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Recognize how philosophical perspectives shaped the development of psychological though. Describe and compare different theoretical approaches in explaining behavior. -structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism in the early years; -Gestalt, psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, and humanism emerging later; -evolutionary, biological, and cognitive as more contemporary approaches. Recognize the strengths and limitations of applying theories to explain behavior. Distinguish the different domains of psychology. -biological, clinical, cognitive, counseling, developmental, educational, experimental, human factors, industrial-organizational, personality, psychometric, and social. Identify the major historical figures in psychology (e.g., Mary Whiton Calkins, Charles Darwin, Dorothea Dix, Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, William James. Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers, B.F. Skinner, Margaret Floy Washburn, John B. Watson, Wilhelm Wundt). KEY TERMS: Introspection Structuralism Functionalism Psychoanalytic Theory Behaviorism Humanist Perspective Psychoanalytic Perspective Biopsychology (or Neuroscience Perspective) Evolutionary (or Darwinian Perspective) Behavioral Perspective Cognitive Perspective Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural Perspective) KEY PEOPLE: Wilhelm Wundt William James Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Floy Washburn G. Stanley Hall Max Wertheimer Sigmund Freud John B. Watson Ivan Pavlov B. F. Skinner Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Charles Darwin Jean Piaget Logic, Philosophy, and History of Science (2 requirements) Can you discuss how the older, more established disciplines of philosophy and biology laid the foundation for the newer discipline of psychology? Can you compare and contrast how Structuralism and Functionalism explain a behavior or a mental process? Approaches (2 requirements) Can you compare and contrast how the contemporary approaches (Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanism, Cognitive, and social-cultural) account for behavior? Can you identify key figures in psychology and associate the person with a theoretical approach? Domains of Psychology (1 requirements) Can you explain psychology’s main subfields? OUTLINE: A. History of Psychology B. C. Wave 1 – Introspection Wave 2 – Gestalt Psychology Wave 3 – Psychoanalysis Wave 4 – Behaviorism Wave 5 – Multiple Perspectives Psychological Approaches Biological Behavioral Cognitive Humanistic Psychodynamic Sociocultural Evolutionary Biopsychosocial Subfields in Psychology AP Expert Tip: It is common for AP essays to be framed around the various approaches, so you should be familiar with each approach. If you learn only four things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) Wilhelm Wundt is credited with being the founder of modern experimental psychology when he founded a lab at the University of Leipzig in 1879. Psychology has its roots in the philosophy of the ancients, such as Plato and Socrates. Titchner, Watson, James, and Skinner are all important early psychologists. The difference between the biological, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychoanalytic and sociocultural approaches. II. RESEARCH METHODS (8-10%) Psychology is an empirical discipline. Psychologists develop knowledge by doing research. Research provides guidance for psychologists who develop theories to explain behavior and who apply theories to solve problems in behavior. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. Differentiate types or research (e.g., experiments, correlational studies, survey research, naturalistic observations, and case studies) with regard to purpose, strengths, and weaknesses. 2. Describe how research design drives the reasonable conclusions that can be drawn (e.g., experiments are useful for determining cause and effect; the use of experimental controls reduces alternative explanations). 3. Identify independent, dependent, confounding, and control variables in experimental designs. 4. Distinguish between random assignment of participants to conditions in experiments and random selection of participants, primarily in correlational studies and surveys. 5. Predict the validity of behavioral explanations based on the quality of research design (e.g., confounding variables limit confidence in research conclusions). 6. Distinguish the purposes of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. 7. Apply basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting and constructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive statistics (e.g., measures of central tendency, standard deviation) 8. Discuss the value of reliance on operational definitions and measurement in behavioral research. 9. Identify how ethical issues inform and constrain research practices. 10. Describe how ethical and legal guidelines (e.g., those provided by the American Psychological Association, federal regulations, local institutional review boards) protect research participants and promote sound ethical practice. KEY TERMS: Hindsight Bias Applied Research Basic Research Hypothesis Independent Variable Dependent Variable Theory Operational Definition Validity Reliability Sampling Sample Population Representative Sample Random Sampling Stratified Sampling Experiment – Laboratory and Field Confounding Variables – Participant and Situation-Relevant Random Assignment Controls Group-Matching Experimenter Bias Double-Blind Procedure Single-Blind Procedure Response of Participant Bias Social Desirability Hawthorne Effect Placebo Method Correlations – Positive and Negative Survey Method Response Rate Naturalistic Observation Case Study Method Descriptive Statistics Frequency Distribution Measures of Central Tendency – Mean, Median, Mode Extreme Scores or Outliers Positive Versus Negative Skew Measures of Variability – Range, Standard Deviation, Variance Z Score Normal Curve Correlation Coefficient Scatter Plot Line of Best Fit/Regression Line Inferential Statistics Sampling Error P Value Statistical Significance Institutional Review Board (IRB) Coercion Informed Consent Anonymity Confidentiality Debriefing Experimental, Correlational, and Clinical Research (4 requirements) Can you identify the purpose, strengths, and weaknesses of the major types of research methods (survey, naturalistic observation, case study, correlation, and experiment)? Can you explain how the experiment allows a researcher to make conclusions about cause and effect? Can you identify all types of variables in experimental design (independent, dependent, confounding, and control variables)? Can you compare and contrast random assignment and random selection? Descriptive and Inferential statistics (3 requirements) Do you understand the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics? Can you explain the meaning of statistical significance? Can you explain why operational definitions are so important in research design? Ethics in Research (1 requirements) Can you identify how ethical guidelines constrain psychological research and protect research participants? OUTLINE: Research Methods Terminology Hypothesis and Variables Validity and Reliability Sampling Experimental Method Correlational Method Naturalistic Observation Case Studies Statistics Descriptive Statistics Correlations Inferential Statistics APA Ethical Guidelines Animal Research Human Research On Correlation: Remember: Just because two variables are related doesn’t necessarily mean that one causes the other. Correlation is not causation. AP Expert Tip: Remember: The dependent variable is dependent upon the independent variable. AP Expert Tip: Ethical guidelines have been emphasized on recent AP Psychology exams, so make sure you keep them in mind as you study. Hint: When writing about research, students often describe the goal as proof of the hypothesis. However, proving a hypothesis is impossible. Rather, research aims to gather data that either supports or disproves a hypothesis. Hint: Selecting a sample randomly maximizes the chance that it will represent the population from which it was drawn and allows researchers to draw generalizations about the population based on their findings about their sample. Hint: Students often equate all research with experiments. As described in the text, many different kinds of research can be conducted, but only experiments can identify cause-and-effect relationships. Hint: Random assignment controls for participant-relevant confounding variables. Students sometimes confuse random assignment and random sampling. White both involve randomization, sampling is the process of choosing the research participants from the population, and it happens before assignment. Assignment is the process of dividing participants into groups (for example, experimental and control), and it cannot be done until after you have identified the sample. Hint: Equivalent environments control for situation-relevant confounding variables. Hint: Double blinds eliminate both experimenter and subject bias. Hint: Students sometimes believe that a control group is the only possible method of control. Remember that although it is an extremely important and obviously name type of control, using control groups is but one of many such methods. Hint: Correlation does not imply causation. Hint: Students often confuse the use of surveys to measure the dependent variable in an experiment with the survey method. While surveys can be used as part of the experimental method, the survey method, as described above, is a kind of correlational research in which the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable. Hint: Students often confuse naturalistic observation with field experiments. Both involve doing research out in the world. However, in naturalistic observation, the researchers do not impact the behavior of the participants at all. In contrast, in field experiments, as in all experiments, the researcher has manipulated the independent variable and attempted to eliminate as many confounding variables as possible. Hint: Students often believe strong correlations correspond to positive numbers. Do not forget that -.92 is exactly as strong a correlation as +.92. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that representative samples “represent” a particular segment of the population. A good way to remember what stratified sampling means is to keep in mind that “stratified” means formed into layers, and in conducting stratified research, the researcher is looking at just one of those layers. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that “random sampling” refers to how participants are selected, whereas “random assignment” refers to which group participants are assigned to. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that the fact that two factors appear to be related does not necessarily mean one caused the other. Also, the closer a number is to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the correlation. Think of +1.00 and -1.00 in terms of absolute values (remove the positive or negative sign in front of the number); the number closer to 1.00 is considered the stronger study. AP Tip: Past free-response questions (FRQs) have focused on different research methods, specifically identifying the pros and cons of each. If you learn only eight things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Observation is the most important aspect of psychological research. Operationalism means to define our variables in the manner in which we are going to measure them. Correlation measures degree of relationship between variables and ranges from -1 to +1. Correlation does not imply causation. The difference between an independent and dependent variable. The difference between a nuisance and a confounding variable. What descriptive and inferential statistics tell us about the results of a study. The role of ethics in psychological research. III. BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR (8-10%) An effective introduction to the relationship between physiological processes and behavior – including the influence of neural function, the nervous system and the brain, and genetic contributions to behavior – is an important element in the AP course. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. Identify basic processes and systems in the biological bases of behavior, including parts of the neuron and the process of transmission 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. of a single between neurons. Discuss the influence of drugs on neurotransmitters (e.g., reuptake mechanisms). Discuss the effect of the endocrine system on behavior. Describe the nervous system and its subdivisions and functions: -central and peripheral nervous systems; -major brain regions, lobes, and cortical areas; -brain lateralization and hemispheric specialization. Discuss the role of neuroplasticity in traumatic brain injury. Recount historic and contemporary research strategies and technologies that support research (e.g., case studies, split-brain research, imaging techniques). Discuss psychology’s abiding interest in how heredity, environment, and evolution work together to shape behavior. Predict how traits and behavior can be selected for their adaptive value. Identify key contributors (e.g., Paul Broca, Charles Darwin, Michael Gazzaniga, Roger Sperry, Carl Wernicke). KEY TERMS: Neuroanatomy Neuron Dendrites Cell Body (also called the Soma) Axon Myelin Sheath Terminal Buttons (also called End Buttons, Axon Terminal, Terminal Branches of Axon, and Synaptic Knobs) Neurotransmitters Synapse Receptor Sites Threshold Action Potential All-or-Nothing Principle Neural Firing Excitatory Neurotransmitters Inhibitory Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Dopamine Endorphins Serotonin Afferent Neurons (or Sensory Neurons) Efferent Neurons (or Motor Neurons) Central Nervous System Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System Accidents Lesions Electroencephalogram (EEG) Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan) KEY PEOPLE: Roger Sperry Michael Gazzaniga Paul Broca Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI Scan) Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) Functional MRI (fMRI) Hindbrain Medulla Pons Cerebellum Midbrain Reticular Formation Forebrain Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus Limbic System Cerebral Cortex Hemispheres Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere Brain Lateralization (or Hemispheric Specialization) Corpus Callosum Lobes Association Area Frontal Lobes Broca’s Area Wernicke’s Area Motor Cortex Sensory Cortex Occipital Lobes Temporal Lobes Brain Plasticity Endocrine System Adrenal Glands Monozygotic Twins Carl Wernicke Thomas Bouchard Neural Transmission (4 requirements) Can you identify the parts of the neuron? Do you understand how neurons communicate with each other? Can you identify the functions of key neurotransmitters and the disorders/illnesses associated with an undersupply or oversupply of each of these chemicals? Do you understand how drugs affect neurotransmitters (such as reuptake mechanisms, agonists, and antagonists)? Functional Organization of the Nervous System (1 requirements) Can you describe the function and the organization of the nervous system, such as the central and peripheral nervous systems? Endocrine System (1 requirements) Can you identify the main glands and describe the effect that their secreted hormones have on the body? Neuroanatomy (5 requirements) Can you explain the function of the main structures of the brainstem region of the brain? Can you explain the functions of the main structures of the limbic system? Can you explain the functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and their association areas? Can you describe the brain areas involved with language production? Can you explain what split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres? Neural Plasticity (1 requirements) Can you describe how a damaged brain can reorganize itself? Physiological Techniques (1 requirements) Can you explain how neuroscientists study the brain (lesions, EEG, CT, PET, MRI, fMRI)? Genetics (4 requirements) Can you describe what twin and adoption studies reveal about the power of genetics? Can you describe how heritability relates to individuals and groups? Can you describe how epigenetics can cause individual differences without altering DNA? Can you provide examples how heredity and the environment work in concert to shape behavior? Evolutionary Psychology (1 requirements) Can you describe how evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies? OUTLINE: Neuroanatomy How a Neuron “Fires” Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Dopamine Endorphins Serotonin Nervous System Afferent Neurons (or Sensory Neurons) Interneurons Efferent Neurons (or Motor Neurons) Organization of the Nervous System The Central Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System Normal Peripheral Nervous System Transmission Reflexes: An Important Exception Brain Ways of Studying the Brain Accidents Lesions Electroencephalogram Computerized Axial Tomography Magnetic Resonance Imaging Positron Emission Tomography Functional MRI Brain Stucture and Function Hindbrain Medulla Pons Cerebellum Midbrain Forebrain Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala and Hippocampus Cerebral Cortex Hemispheres Areas of the Cerebral Cortex Frontal Lobes Parietal Lobes Occipital Lobes Temporal Lobes Brain Plasticity Endocrine System Adrenal Glands Ovaries and Testes Genetics Basic Genetic Concepts Twins Chromosomal Abnormalities AP Expert Tip: A helpful way to remember the various imaging techniques is to think of which ones are designed to examine the brain’s structure (CAT, MRI), which ones examine the brain’s function (PET, EEG), and which do both (fMRI). Hint: Neural firing is an electrochemical process. Electricity travels within the cell (from the dendrites to the terminal buttons), and chemicals (neurotransmitters) travel between cells in the synapse. Electricity does not jump between the neuron. Hint: Some of the descriptions of brain function may seem vague or redundant when you read about the functions of other structures. Remember that some of the ways in which the brain works are still being investigated and the functions are just summarized here for our purposes. Keep the areas and general functions in mind instead of spending your time trying to figure out exact specific functions and locations. Hint: These parts of the brain (thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus) are grouped together and called the limbic system because they all deal with aspects of emotion and memory. When you study parts of the brain, grouping structures together according to function should help you remember them. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify which areas of the neuron is responsible for which function. Specifically, questions have focused on the dendrite, axon terminal, and myelin. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember what each part of a neuron does is to think of driving to a location, switching cars along the way. You first get into your car (nucleus), which is parked in your garage (soma). You pull out of the garage and back down your driveway. The point at which the driveway meets the road is similar to the axon hillock. Once on the road, you begin to travel to your destination. The road itself is the axon, which is protected by a curb on each side, similar to myelin, which helps protect the axon. As you travel to your destination, you encounter hills and valleys (nodes of Ranvier), which help slow you down or propel you toward your goal to speed up the process of arriving at your final destination. As you come to your initial destination, you pull into a parking spot (axon terminal), which is the end of the driving portion of your trip. You exit your vehicle through the car door (release channel) and step outside to the area between the car you arrived in and the new car you will be traveling in (synapse/synaptic cleft). If you have the correct key to enter the awaiting car, you will be allowed to enter the new car through its door (receptor site). Once inside the new vehicle (dendrite), you relay your destination to the driver of the new car (nucleus). The new car (nucleus) then repeats a similar process as above to transport you to either another car or your final destination. Nuts and Bolts: An easy way to remember the functions of afferent and efferent neurons is to remember Sensory Afferent, Motor Efferent (S.A.M.E.) AP Tip: Be familiar with the process of neural transmission – specifically the all-or-none (nothing) principle, and know which ions enter and exit during polarization and depolarization. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that Alzheimer’s disease is caused by a lack of acetylcholine: both begin with the letter A, Dopamine is the body’s “pleasure chemical”, and lack of it results in Parkinson’s disease. Lack of serotonin is associated with depression. (Remember that when Sara is not around people are sad). A deficiency of GABA causes a person to be afraid to gab (talk) with people. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students about specific neurotransmitter substances, such as serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine, and the resulting effects of an excess or a deficiency. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the function and location of the frontal lobe is to think that when you do something stupid or dumb, you might thump the front of your forehead with the palm of your hand. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the function and location of the parietal lobe is to think of a person patting the top of your head, saying “good job”. You feel the sensation because that person is hitting your parietal lobe. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the function and location of the occipital lobe is to think of a cartoon character who is hit in the back of the head and sees stars. Or you can simply remember that you do have eyes in the back of your head. Nuts and Bolts: One way to recall the function and location of the temporal lobe is to remember that you hear the tempo of music through your ears. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify the functions of the lobes of the brain. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember that Broca’s area is responsible for turning thoughts into words is to remember that “boca” means mouth in Spanish. Another way is to remember that if you have Broca’s aphasia, your mouth is broken and you cannon talk. Broca’s is to speech production as Wernicke’s is to comprehension. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have centered on identifying the respective functions of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember where the motor cortex is located is to remember that the motor is in the front of a car. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice question have required students to identify the function of a given area of the brain. Past free-response questions have asked students to identify the area of the brain responsible for hunger. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify which hormones are responsible for which functions. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have required students to identify which brain-imaging technique is or would be used in a given situation. If you learn only six things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) The different methods for peering into the human brain. The areas of the brain: hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain. What the areas of the brain control. The structure of the neuron. The action potential. The role of neurotransmitters in neural transmission. IV. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION (6-8%) Everything that organisms know about the world is first encountered when stimuli in the environment activate sensory organs, initiating awareness of the external world. Perception involves the interpretation of the sensory inputs as a cognitive process. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. Discuss the basic principles of sensory transduction, including absolute threshold, difference threshold, signal detection, sensory adaptation. Describe sensory processes (e.g., hearing, vision, touch, taste, smell, vestibular, kinesthesis, pain), including the specific nature of energy transduction, relevant anatomical structures, and specialized pathways in the brain for each of the senses. Explain common sensory disorders (e.g., visual and hearing impairments). 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Describe general principles of organizing and integrating sensation to promote stable awareness of the external world (e.g., Gestalt principles, depth perception). Discuss how experience and culture can influence perceptual processes (e.g., perceptual set, context effects). Explain the role of top-down processing in producing vulnerability to illusion. Discuss the role of attention in behavior. Challenge common beliefs in parapsychological phenomena. Identify the major historical figures in sensation and perception (e.g., Gustav Fechner, David Hubel, Ernst Weber, Torsten Wiesel). KEY TERMS: Transduction Sensory Adaptation Sensory Habituation (also called Perceptual Adaptation) Cocktail-Party Phenomenon Sensation Perception Energy Senses Chemical Senses Vision Cornea Pupil Lens Retina Feature Detectors Optic Nerve Occipital Lobe Visible Light Rods and Cones Fovea Blind Spot Trichromatic Theory Color Blindness Afterimages Opponent-Process Theory Hearing Sound Waves Amplitude Frequency Cochlea Pitch Theories Place Theory Frequency Theory Conduction Deafness Nerve Deafness Touch Gate-Control Theory Taste (or Gustation) Smell (or Olfaction) Vestibular Sense Kinesthetic Sense Absolute Threshold Subliminal Messages Difference Threshold Weber’s Law Signal Detection Theory Top-Down Processing Bottom-Up Processing Gestalt Rules Proximity Similarity Continuity Closure Constancy Size Constancy Shape Constancy Brightness Constancy Depth Cues KEY PEOPLE: David Hubel Torsten Wiesel Ernst Weber Gustav Fechner Eleanor Gibson Thresholds and Signal Detection (2 requirements) Can you compare sensation and perception and understand how they relate to bottom-up and top-down processing? Do you understand the basic principles of sensory transduction, such as absolute threshold, difference threshold, Weber’s Law, signal detection, and sensory adaptation? Attention (1 requirements) Can you describe how were are affected by selective attention, the cocktail party effect, and innattentional blindness? Sensory Mechanisms (2 requirements) Can you describe how transduction occurs in sensory processes (hearing, vision, touch, taste, smell, vestibular, kinesthesis, and pain) and how sensory related neural impulses reach the brain? Can you explain the causes of sensory disorders (visual and hearing impairments) Perceptual Processes (4 requirements) Can you explain how Gestalt principles help of organize the world we see? Can you explain how monocular and binocular depth cues permit depth perception? Can you provide examples how experience and culture influence perception, such as the perceptual set and context effects? Can you provide examples how top-down processing makes us vulnerable to certain optical illusions (Mueller- Lyer illusion, Moon illusion, Ames room illusion)? OUTLINE: Energy Senses Vision Step 1 – Gathering Light Step 2 – Within the Eye Step 3 – Transduction Step 4 – In the Brain Theories of Color Vision Trichromatic Theory Opponent-Process Theory Hearing Pitch Theories Place Theory Frequency Theory Deafness Touch Chemical Senses Taste (or Gustation) Smell (or Olfaction) Body Position Senses Vestibular Sense Kinesthetic Sense Perception Thresholds Perceptual Theories Signal Detection Theory Top-Down Processing Bottom-Up Processing Principles of Visual Perception Gestalt Rules Constancy Perceived Motion Depth Cues Monocular Cues Binocular Cues Effect of Culture on Perception AP Expert Tip: Sensation is receiving raw data; perception is how the brain interprets the data. AP Expert Tip: Quick trick for differentiating rods and cones: Cones Code for Color and Clarity. Hint: One of the ways to organize the different senses in your mind is by thinking about what they gather from the outside world. The first three senses listed here, vision, hearing, and touch, gather energy in the form of light, sound waves, and pressure, respectively. Think of these three senses as energy senses. The next two, taste and smell, gather chemicals. Think of these as chemical senses. The last two senses describes, vestibular and kinethestic, help us with body position and balance. Hint: Most researchers agree with a combination of trichromatic and opponent-process theory. Individual cones appear to correspond best to the trichromatic theory, while the opponent processes may occur at other layers of the retina. The important thing to remember is that both concepts are needed to explain color vision fully. Hint: One way to remember amplitude and frequency is to imagine you are watching waves go by. Frequency is how frequently the waves come by. If they speed by quickly, the waves are high in frequency. Amplitude is how tall the waves are. The taller the waves, the more energy and the louder the noise. Hint: These perceptual theories are not competing with one another. Each theory describes different examples or parts of perception. Sometimes a single example of the interpretation of sensation needs to be explained using all of the following theories. AP Tip: Be prepared to describe how transduction affects the process of sensation and perception. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain the role of thresholds with detection of a stimulus. Also be able to explain the association between difference thresholds and Weber’s Law. Nuts and Bolts: Remember to associate cones with color. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to associate feature detectors with visual processing is to remember that a movie can be called a motion feature presentation. Remember you watch with your eyes a motion feature presentation. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the parts of the eye and the role that each plays in vision. Nuts and Bolts: To remember that shorter wavelengths product bluish colors think of the cartoon characters the Smurfs. Remember, not only are Smurfs blue, they are also short. To remember that long wavelengths display a reddish color think of the character Clifford the dog. Clifford is a long, red dog. AP Tip: You may be asked to identify the parts of a light wave. Nuts and Bolts: Think of the opponent-process theory as two people playing basketball. When one player has the ball, the other player, the defender, does not. When red (the player with the ball) is activated, green (the player who does not have the ball) is not activated. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain and differentiate between the trichromatic and opponent-process theories of color vision. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the parts of a sound wave, and also to compare them to the properties of a light wave. AP Tip: A multiple-choice question might ask how each part of the ear contributes to audition. Nuts and Bolts: Compare the place theory to playing a guitar. The note played depends on where the player places his or her finger on the neck or fret of the guitar. According to the place theory, pitch is the result of where a vibration strikes the basilar membrane. AP Tip: Be prepared to differentiate between the place and frequency explanations for pitch perception. Nuts and Bolts: To remember what the olfactory system is used for, remember that old factories smell. Nuts and Bolts: To associate taste with gustation, remember, “That tastes disgustation”! Nuts and Bolts: An example of sensory interaction occurs when people smell something good and then smack their lips. It’s almost as if they can taste and smell. AP Tip: One multiple-choice question might ask which senses interact. Also, be prepared to identify the receptors for olfaction and gustation. Nuts and Bolts: Endorphins are released in response to pain. When you receive a massage, notice at the beginning that it may hurt a little. This occurs because substance P is being released, causing the gates to open and you experience pain. But as the message continues, notice that it starts to fell good. This occurs because endorphins are released inhibiting substance P. AP Tip: An essay question might ask you to describe how people experience pain and what factors contribute to increased or decreased pain perception. Nuts and Bolts: Have you ever used a level while constructing something or hanging a picture? A level has a bubble in liquid; the object is level when the bubble is exactly in the middle of the liquid. Think of the vestibular sac and semicircular canal as a level. When the fluid in these structures is level, you are physically balanced. When the fluid is not level, as when the water bubble is not between the lines, you feel dizzy. Nuts and Bolts: Think of bottom-up processing as putting a puzzle together upside down. You don’t have any idea what the puzzle will look like until you are finished. In contrast, if you were putting a puzzle together while looking at a picture on the box, you would be using top-down processing (you use the prior knowledge of the assembled puzzle to put it together. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the figure-ground effect is that you can see your teacher as he stands in front of a chalk or whiteboard. You see the figure in the foreground and the ground in the background. It is also important to know the names of some of the “famous” figure-ground picture such as the vase-face (Boring image). AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions asked students to identify which Gestalt law or principle was being displayed, either by looking at a picture or by name. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that constancy means that an object remains constant despite an apparent change. Nuts and Bolts: Another way to remember the autokinetic effect is to recall that “auto” means automatic, and “kinetic” means movement. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the phi phenomenon is to think of a baseball scoreboard that displays fireworks after a homerun is hit. The perception of the fireworks exploding is simply the lights turning on and off in a sequential pattern. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify the autokinetic effect and the phi phenonmenon. If you learn only five things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Perception is the interpretation of sensory information; It relies on experience. Perception was one of the earliest areas of experimental psychology. The difference between sensation and perception. The structure and function of the eye. The structure and function of the ear. V. STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS (2-4%) Understanding consciousness and what it encompasses is critical to an appreciation of what is meant by a given state of consciousness. The study of variations is consciousness includes an examination of the sleep cycle, dreams, hypnosis, and the effects of psychoactive drugs. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Describe various stages of consciousness and their impact on behavior/ Discuss aspects of sleep and dreaming: -stages and characteristics of the sleep cycle; -theories of sleep and dreaming; -symptoms and treatments of sleep disorders. Describe historic and contemporary uses of hypnosis (e.g., pain control, psychotherapy). Explain hypnotic phenomena (e.g., suggestibility, dissociation). Identify the major psychoactive drugs categories (e.g., depressants, stimulants) and classify specific drugs, including their psychological and physiological effects. Discuss drug dependence, addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal. Identify the major figures in consciousness research (e.g., William James, Sigmund Freud, Ernest Hilgard). KEY TERMS: Consciousness Levels of Consciousness Conscious Level Nonconscious Level Preconscious Level Subconscious Level Unconscious Level Sleep Sleep Cycles Sleep Stages REM Sleep Sleep Disorders Insomnia Narcolepsy Sleep Apnea Night Terrors Dreams KEY PEOPLE: William James Sigmund Freud Freudian Dream Interpretation Activation-Synthesis Dream Theory Hypnosis Posthypnotic Amnesia Posthypnotic Suggestion Role Theory of Hypnosis State Theory of Hypnosis Dissociation Theory of Hypnosis Psychoactive Drugs Agonists Antagonists Tolerance Withdrawal Stimulants Depressants Hallucinogens (also called Psychedelics) Opiates Ernest Hilgard Sleep and Dreaming (3 requirements) Can you explain how circadian rhythms affect our alertness levels and other physiological functions? Can you identify the stages and main characteristics (including brain waves) of each of the stages of sleep? Can you explain various dream theories (information-processing, activation-synthesis, and wish-fulfillment)? Hypnosis (2 requirements) Can you describe historic and contemporary uses of hypnosis, such as psychotherapy and pain control? Can you describe how both the social influence theory and the divided consciousness theory account for hypnosis? Psychoactive Drugs (2 requirements) Can you identify the major psychoactive drug categories (depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens) and classify specific drugs, including their psychological and physiological effects? Can you define drug dependence, addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal? OUTLINE: Levels of Consciousness Conscious Level Nonconscious Level Preconscious Level Subconscious Level Unconscious Level Sleep Sleep Cycle Sleep Disorders Dreams Hypnosis Drugs AP Expert Tip: A good way to help yourself organize the sleep disorders is to list them in order from “least disabling” to “most disabling”. Hint: This psychological definition implies that consciousness is not like an on/off switch. We are not conscious or unconscious. Psychologists refer to different levels and different states of consciousness. Hint: According to the psychological definition of consciousness, sleep is a state of consciousness because, while we are asleep, we are less aware of ourselves and our environment that we are when we are in our normal awake state. Other states of consciousness – drug-induced states, hypnosis, and so on – are states of consciousness for similar reasons. Hint: Alcohol is categorized as a depressant because of its effect on our nervous system, even though some people report feeling more energized after ingesting a small amount of alcohol. This energizing effect is due to expectations about alcohol and because alcohol lowers inhibitions. Similarly, nicotine is a stimulant because it speeds up our nervous system, but some smokers smoke to relax. Nuts and Bolts: If you are sitting in class and your teacher asks you to solve the next problem, then for the next few moments your state of consciousness is going to involve solving the problem. AP Tip: A possible multiple-choice question could ask who suggested that consciousness could be compared to a stream. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the release of the hormone melotonin is to think of the nucleus as the eye in the hypothalamus because it monitors light and darkness. Also think of melotonin as “mellowing” you out. When melotonin is released you “mellow” and get tired. AP Tip: Be ready to identify which hormone causes a person to become drowsy when released. Also be able to identify which gland releases this hormone. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember that beta waves signal that a person is awake and attentive is to think of this: You “BETAer” be wide awake when taking the AP psychology exam! Also, remember that the first two letters of delta waves match the first two letters of deep sleep. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain which stages of sleep become longer and, in contrast, which become shorter throughout the night as a person sleeps. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember the restorative theory of sleep is to think about why people tell you to get a good night’s sleep. A good night’s sleep before the AP exam is a good idea, for example, because it will help your brain restore itself to optimal functioning. Coaches tell athletes to get a good night’s sleep before a big game so their bodies will be fresh. AP Tip: A possible essay question might ask you to explain why sleep is necessary and how it affect the brain and body. Be prepared to give specific examples and cite theories. AP Tip: Be prepared to distinguish between manifest and latent content in Freud’s dream theory. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify contrasting views of hypnosis. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how withdrawal symptoms and tolerance contribute to drug abuse. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked test takers to identify the effects of depressants, stimulants, opiates, and hallucinogens on the brain and body. Tip: This psychological definition implies that consciousness is not like an on/off switch. We are not conscious or unconscious. Psychologists refer to different levels and different states of consciousness. Tip: According to the psychological definition of consciousness, sleep is a state of consciousness because, while we are asleep, we are less aware of ourselves and our environment than we are when we are in our normal awake state. Other states of consciousness – drug-induced states, hypnosis, and so on – are states of consciousness for similar reasons. Tip: Alcohol is categorized as a depressant because of its effect on our nervous system, even though some people report feeling more energized after ingesting a small amount of alcohol. This energizing effect is due to expectations about alcohol and because alcohol lowers inhibitions. Similarly, nicotine is a stimulant because it speeds up our nervous system, but some smokers smoke to relax. If you learn only six things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) People dream during REM sleep. Sleep isn’t easy for everyone. There are a variety of sleep disorders that are important to understand. Selective attention is difficult to control. We can divide our attention only so much. Behavior that is automatic requires very few attentional resources. The stages of sleep. VI. LEARNING (7-9%) This section of the course introduces students to differences between learned and unlearned behavior. The primary focus is exploration of different kinds of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. The biological bases of behavior illustrate predispositions for learning. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning (e.g., contingencies). 2. Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena, such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, and higher-order learning. 3. Predict the effects of operant conditioning (e.g., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement). 4. Predict how practice, schedules of reinforcement, and motivation will influence quality of learning. 5. Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments. 6. Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions. 7. Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social learning. 8. Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious behavior, and learned helplessness. 9. Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can be used to address behavioral problems. 10. Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning (e.g., Albert Bandura, John Garcia, Ivan Pavlov, Robert Rescorla, B.F. Skinner, Edward Throndike, Edward Tolman, John B. Watson). KEY TERMS: Learning Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination Classical Conditioning Unconditional Stimulus Unconditional Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Aversive Conditioning Second-Order or Higher-Order Conditioning Learned Taste Aversion Operant Conditioning Law of Effect Instrumental Learning Skinner Box Reinforcer, Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment Postitive Punishment Omission Training Shaping Chaining Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers Generalized Reinforcers Token Economy Reinforcement Schedules (FI, FR, VI, VR) Continuous Reinforcement Partial-Reinforcement Effect Instinctive Drift Observational Learning or Modeling Latent Learning Insight Learning KEY PEOPLE: Ivan Pavlov John Watson Rosalie Rayner John Garcia Robert Koelling Edward Thorndike B.F. Skinner Robert Rescorla Albert Bandura Edward Tolman Wolfgang Kohler Classical Conditioning (2 requirements) Can you distinguish the differences between classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning? Can you describe and provide examples of classical conditioning phenomena such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, and higher order conditioning? Operant Conditioning (3 requirements) Can you describe and provide examples of operant condition principles such a shaping, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment? Can you explain the differences between reinforcers (primary v. secondary, immediate v. delayed, continuous v. intermittent)? Can you identify and provide an example of the four schedules of reinforcement (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval)? Cognitive Processes (1 requirements) Can you explain how cognition impacts classical and operant conditioning (aversive therapy, learned helplessness contingency model, insight learning, and latent learning)? Biological Factors (2 requirements) Can you explain how classical and operant conditioning are constrained by biological predispositions (taste Can you applying learning principles to explain superstitious behavior? Social Learning (2 requirements) Can you explain how observational learning is enabled by mirror neurons? Can you describe the impact that models have on behavior? OUTLINE: Classical Conditioning Biology and Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Punishment Versus Reinforcement Reinforcement Schedules (Fixed-Interval, Fixed-Ratio, Variable-Interval, Variable-Ratio) Biology and Classical Conditioning Cognitive Learning aversion, instinctive drift)? The Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning Observational Learning Latent Learning Abstract Learning Insight Learning Hint: Students often confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. However, any type of reinforcement results in the behavior being more likely to be repeated. The negative in negative reinforcement refers to the fact that something is taken away. The positive in positive punishment indicates that something is added. In negative reinforcement, the removal of an aversive stimulus is what is reinforcing. Hint: Students sometimes intuit that if there is no consequence to a behavior, its likelihood will be unchanged; remember, unless behaviors are reinforced, the likelihood of their recurrence decreases. Hint: Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules, and all partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcements. Hint: Pavlov’s contiguity model of classical conditioning holds that the strength of an association between two events is closely linked to the number of times they have been paired in time. Rescorla’s contingency model of classical conditioning reflects more of a cognitive spin, positing that it is necessary for one event to reliably predict another for a strong association between the two to result. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that the unconditioned response (UCR) and the conditioned response (CR) are similar, if not the same. The goal of classical conditioning is to pair the neutral stimulus (NS) with the unconditioned stimulus (USC/US) to allow the formation of the conditioned stimulus (CS). Another way to correctly identify the unconditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response is to remember that unconditioned means unlearned. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify the NS, UCS, UCR, CS, and CR. Prior free-response questions have asked students to identify how a behavior is formed using the classical conditioning model. Nuts and Bolts: A real-life example of second-order (higher-order) conditioning would be if you changed the ring tone on your cell phone. You would know that you were getting a call when you heard the new ring because you knew that hearing the old ring tone meant that you were getting a phone call. The earlier ring tone signaled a behavior (answering the phone); your new ring tone signals the same behavior (answering the phone). Nuts and Bolts: Think of spontaneous recovery as a behavior that suddenly returns after it has disappeared for a while. For example, if you are listening to the radio and hear a song that reminds you of a dance you attended during middle school, the feelings and memories that you have about that dance and your life at that time may return. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that UCS stands for unconditioned stimulus, UCR stands for unconditioned response, NS stands for neutral stimulus, CS stands for conditioned stimulus, and CR stands for conditioned response. AP Tip: Be sure you can identify the NS, UCS, UCR, CS and CR in Watson’s Little Albert study. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that a primary reinforcer satisfies biological necessities (food, water, sex, warmth, and so on) that are needed for survival. Secondary reinforcers (good grades, money, praise, and so forth) are not necessary for survival, but are nice to have because they have been associated with a biological need. Nuts and Bolts: When thinking about behavior and whether it increases or decreases, remember that increasing means that the behavior you are doing continues, whereas a decrease means it stops. Do not confuse an increase in behavior with behaving better or a decrease in behavior as behaving worse. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have centered on identifying what type of reinforcement is being provided. It is possible there will be a question asking you to identify which of the following displays negative reinforcement, for this is a concept that may confuse people. Remember that all reinforcers, whether negative or positive, will encourage the repetition of the behavior. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember discriminative stimulus is to think of it as a stop light at an intersection. When the light is red, you do now proceed through the intersection. However, once the light turns green, you are allowed to go. This is a form of discriminative stimulus: it discriminates by telling you when you are and are not allowed to proceed. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have centered on identifying which schedule of reinforcement is being illustrated. Free-response questions have also focused on reinforcement schedules in relation to time. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember cognitive maps and latent learning is to think back to the first time you traveled to your high school. Chances are you were not driving yourself. However, you were able to learn the route to school simply by being a passenger in the car. When it came time for you to drive yourself to school you were able to get there with no problems (latent learning) because you had a mental map of how to do so. AP Tip: Past free-response questions have asked students to identify the effects of media violence, specifically the effects that may lead to aggression. Tip: Ratio schedules typically result in higher response rates than interval schedules. If you learn only nine things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior. Classical conditioning (first described by Pavlov) involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus with a reflex-inducing stimuli so that eventually, the neutral stimulus evokes the reflex. A simple case is when we develop phobias. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning. According to operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior influence whether or not a behavior will be performed again. Both positive and negative reinforcement lead to an increase in behavior. Both positive and negative punishment lead to a decrease in behavior. Positive means to add something; negative means to remove something. Reinforcement can be given in a variety of ways: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio. Applied behavior analysis has been shown to be a very effective strategy. VII. COGNITION (8-10%) In this unit students learn how humans convert sensory input into kinds of information. They examine how humans learn, remember, and retrieve information. This part of the course also addresses problem solving, language, and creativity. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Compare and contrast various cognitive processes: -effortful versus automatic processing; -deep versus shallow processing; -focused versus divided attention. Describe and differentiate psychological and physiological systems of memory (e.g., short—term memory, procedural memory). Outline the principles that underlie effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories. Describe strategies for memory improvement. Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors converge to facilitate acquisition, development, and use of language. Identify problem-solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness. List the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers. Identify key contributors in cognitive psychology (e.g., Noam Chomsky, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Wolfgang Kohler, Elizabeth Loftus, George A. Miller). KEY TERMS: Memory Three-Box/Information Processing Model Levels of Processing Model Sensory Memory Iconic Memory Selective Attention Echoic Memory Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) Chunking Mnemonic Devices Rehearsal Long-Term Memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Procedural Memory Explicit Memories (also called Declarative Memories) Implicit Memories (also called Nondeclarative Memories) Eidetic or Photographic Memory Retrieval Recognition Recall Primacy Effect Recency Effect Serial Position Effect (also called Serial Position Curve) Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Semantic Network Theory Flashbulb Memories State-Dependent Memory Mood Congruent Memory Constructed (or Reconstructed) Memory Relearning Effect Retroactive Interference Proactive Interference Anterograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia Long-Term Potentiation Phonemes Morphemes Syntax Language Acquisition Overgeneralization or Overregularization Language Acquisition Device Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis Prototypes Images Algorithm Heuristic Representativeness Heuristic Belief Bias or Belief Perseverance Functional Fixedness Confirmation Bias Convergent Thinking Divergent Thinking Availability Heuristic KEY PEOPLE: George Sperling George Miller Alexandra Luria Hermann Ebbinghaus Noam Chomsky Benjamin Whorf Wolfgang Kohler Memory (9 requirements) Can you compare and contrast effortful versus automatic processing? Can you compare and contrast deep versus shallow processing? Can you compare and contrast focused versus divided attention? Can you describe the processes of encoding, storage, retrieval, and memory construction? Can you describe brain structures involved in memory (lobes of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum)? Can you describe and differentiate different memory storage systems (sensory, short-term/working, and long term)? Can you outline and describe the types of long-term memory (explicit/declarative vs. implicit/procedural, semantic, episodic)? Can you describe strategies that enhance memory (mnemonics, hierarchies, chunking)? Can you explain how stress can enhance and inhibit memory? Thinking (1 requirements) Can you describe how we organize concepts (hierarchies, definitions, and prototypes) Problem Solving & Creativity (3 requirements) Can you compare and contrast different problem solving strategies (algorithms, heuristics, insight, and intuition)? Can you explain how the following may negatively impact judgment or problem solving: availability heuristics, representativeness heuristics, mental set, functional fixedness, confirmation bias, and belief perseverance? Can you list the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers? Language (2 requirements) Can you describe the building blocks of all languages (phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics)? Can you describe how we acquire language? OUTLINE: Models of Memory Three Box/Information-Processing Model Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory/Working Memory Long-Term Memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Procedural Memory Levels of Processing Model Retrieval Constructive Memory Forgetting How Memories are Physically Stored in the Brain Language Elements of Language Language Acquisition Language and Cognition Thinking and Creativity Describing Thought Problem Solving Algorithms Heuristics Impediments to Problem Solving Creativity AP Expert Tip: Incorrect answers on a test can be explained as either encoding, storage, or retrieval problems. AP Expert Tip: Following a recipe in order to bake a cake is an example of an algorithm. Hint: Do not take this memory model too literally. The model describes the process, not physical structures. There is not one spot in the brain that is the long-term memory spot. Memories are distributed around the cortex. Researchers use the model to describe the process rather than define how and where the brain stores memories physically. Hint: Some people say they have a photographic memory when what they mean is very good memory. True eidetic memory occurs very rarely. Most of us could enhance our memories through training with mnemonic devices, context, and visual imagery. Hint: Some students find remembering the difference between retroactive and proactive interference difficult. Focus on which type of information is trying to be recalled. If old information is what you are searching for, retroactive (older) interference most likely applies. if you are searching for newer information, proactive (new) interference might take place. Nuts and Bolts: Thing of your hippocampus as an “autopilot” in that it allows you to complete tasks without much thought. If you have to “think” about a situation or task, then your frontal lobes are more active, thus increasing the chance that you won’t perform the needed task or behavior accurately. AP Tip: Free-response question integrate multiple chapters, so be prepared to answer how the brain is involved in memory and cognition. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to define concepts, prototypes, and schemas. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the definition of an algorithm is to think about going to a grocery store to buy eggs. If you were to use an algorithm to find the eggs, you would walk up and down each aisle, looking at every product on every shelf until you found the eggs. This would be time consuming, but you would be guaranteed to find the eggs. Nuts and Bolts: When asked which country has a higher population, Canada or Australia, many people rely on accessible information to formulate a conclusion. Therefore, if the only thing you know about Canada is that it is cold, you might conclude that fewer people live there than in Australia, which is not as cold. However, you might be surprised to learn that Canada has approximately 10 million more residents that Australia. Because you used only information that was most easily accessible to you to form your judgment, you did not account for the size of each country, which might have affected your answer. AP Tip: Past free-response questions have required proper identification of which heuristic is being used and have asked students to provide an example based on a given question. Nuts and Bolts: Many students miss questions on a test that are written in the negative, with wording such as “which of the following DOES NOT . . .” because all previous questions required the correct answer, while ignoring the wrong answers. One way to break a mental set is to read the question slowly. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students about mental sets or functional fixedness. Be ready to explain how these are an obstacle to problem solving; be sure to know the different obstacles to problem solving. Nuts and Bolts: A way to remember the definition of confirmation bias is that people do not generally like to be given information that is counter to their beliefs, and therefore may ignore the information presented. They prefer information that confirms their beliefs. Nuts and Bolts: To help remember gambler’s fallacy, think about stories you have heard about athletes believing that if they perform a certain behavior they will improve their chances of winning. You can also think of gambler’s fallacy as essentially a superstitious behavior that a person believes will influence the outcome in a favorable manner. Nuts and Bolts: Surveys often take advantage of the framing effect by using carefully chosen words. These words can, and often do, influence survey outcomes. AP Tip: Past free-response questions have asked students to identify how the framing effect could alter the outcome of a decision. Multiplechoice questions have asked students to identify obstacles that influence decision making. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the different elements of language. Nuts and Bolts: There are numerous terms for describing something you are born with, including inborn, innate, hereditary, inherited, predisposed, natural, and nativist. AP Tip: Previous free-response questions have asked students to identify opposing views on the developments of language. Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify the problems with the behavioral view of language development. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the problems associated with the Whorfian view of language and thought. Nuts and Bolts: Think of the process of memory as similar to creating a document on a computer. Encoding is the act of typing the material into a word processing document. Storage is like saving the document. Retrieval could be compared to reopening the document on the computer. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the three steps necessary to process, store, and retrieve memories. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the three stages of the information processing model. Nuts and Bolts: To remember that iconic sensory memory represents visual memory, think about the pronunciation of the word “iconic”; “eyeconic”. On the other hand, an “echo” is heard, which is a good way to remember that echoic sensory memory represents auditory memory. AP Tip: Be prepared to answer a question about which type of sensory memory tends to be retained longer. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify short-term memory as “working memory” and to explain the duration and capacity of short-term memory. Nuts and Bolts: Think of long-term memory as an attic. People store objects in their attics from as recently as last week to as long ago as when they first moved into the house. Most people are amazed at what they find when they go up in their attics. A typical response on finding something is, “I didn’t know I still had this”. The same is true of long-term memory. People are often amazed by what they can remember. AP Tip: You should understand the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborate rehearsal and be prepared to identify in which stage of memory each type of rehearsal is used. Nuts and Bolts: Your explicit memories require “explicit” answers that must be “declared” through your consciously thinking about them. Nuts and Bolts: Episodes in a TV series are compromised of “personal” stories describing characters. In other words, a TV series is actually a series of personalized episodes comparable to the episodic information that describes who you are. AP Tip: A free-response question might ask students to identify a specific example as either explicit or implicit memory. Be prepared to identify which type of memory is consciously or unconsciously recalled. AP Tip: You might be asked to write an essay about how long-term memories are organized. Nuts and Bolts: Think of a long-term memory as a balloon. The string on the balloon is like a retrieval cue. In other words, the string helps you retrieve the balloon from the ceiling. A retrieval cue helps retrieve a long-term memory. Nuts and Bolts: The serial position effect holds that the middle items of a list are most easily forgotten. When studying the order of events, such as stages of development, for example, pay particular attention to the stages that occur in the middle, as you are more likely to forget these. For example, students often get the order of Freud’s psychosexual stages mixed up. When studying the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, pay particular attention to the order of the anal, phallic, and latency stages. AP Tip: You may be asked to identify tip-of-the-tongue as a retrieval failure. Nuts and Bolts: If you’re like most students, you would prefer to take a multiple-choice test rather than an essay test because the multiplechoice answers provide retrieval cues to the information learned. Essay tests tend to be more challenging because you have to recall the information without the aid of retrieval cues. Nuts and Bolts: Think of a flashbulb memory as an actual picture taken by a camera. The picture is detailed and includes objects in the background that were not the focus of the picture. Flashbulb memories capture not only the significance of the event, but also background information, like a song being played at the time or other people who were in the area. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how schemas could lead to memory distortion. AP Tip: A free-response question might ask you how Herman Ebbinghaus explained why people forget information. AP Tip: Past test questions have asked students to differentiate between retroactive and proactive interference. Be prepared to identify a situation for each type of interference. AP Tip: Be able to identify which neurotransmitters are involved in the process of memory, and how memory occurs. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia. AP Tip: Be able to identify the different areas of the brain associated with memory. AP Tip: An essay question might ask you to explain how mnemonic devices improve memory. Be prepared to give examples. If you learn only nine things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Cognition is the study of mental processes. STM seems to be limited to 7+ or – 2 items at any given time. The difference between encoding and retrieval is an important distinction. Models of LTM deal with how we organize information that we know. Problem solving involves applying what we know in an organized way to issues that we face. Levels of processing theory. Phonemes, morphemes, syntax, and semantics are all levels of language. Language acquisition debates turn on whether language is learned via the environment or it is inborn. Linguistic universals are concepts that seem to be consistent among all languages. VIII.MOTIVATION AND EMOTION (6-8%) In this part of the course, students explore biological and social factors that motivate behavior and biological and cultural factors that influence emotion. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Identify and apply basic motivational concepts to understand the behavior of humans and other animals (e.g., instincts, incentives, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation). Discuss the biological underpinnings of motivation, including needs, drives, and homeostasis. Compare and contrast motivational theories (e.g., drive reduction theory, arousal theory, general adaptation theory), including the strengths and weaknesses of each. Describe classic research findings in specific motivation systems (e.g., eating, sex, social). Discuss theories of stress and the effects of stress on psychological and physical well-being. Compare and contrast major theories of emotion (e.g., James-Lange Theory, Cannon-Bard, Schachter two-factor theory). Describe how cultural influences shape emotional expression, including variations in body language. Identify key contributors in the psychology of motivation and emotion (e.g., William James, Alfred Kinsey, Abraham Maslow, Stanley Schachter, Hans Seyle). KEY TERMS: Motivations Instincts Drive Reduction Theory Need Drive Primary Drives Secondary Drives Homeostasis Arousal Theory Yerkes-Dodson Law Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation Incentives Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization Lateral Hypothalamus Ventromedial Hypothalamus KEY PEOPLE: Set-Point Theory Bulimia Anorexia Obesity Achievement Motivation Extrinsic Motivators Intrinsic Motivators Management Theory Approach-Approach Conflict Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict Approach-Avoidance Conflict James-Lange Theory of Emotion Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Two-Factor Theory General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Charles Darwin Abraham Maslow William Masters Virginia Johnson Alfred Kinsey William James Carl Lange Walter Cannon Philip Bard Stanley Schachter Thomas Holmes Richard Rahe Hans Seyle Theories of Motivation (1 requirements) Can you compare and contrast motivational theories (drive-reduction, arousal, instinct, incentive, and Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs)? Biological Bases and Hunger (2 requirements) Can you explain the biological underpinnings of motivation including needs, drives, and homeostasis? Can you describe how the brain (lateral v. ventromedial hypothalamus) and hormones (ghrelin, orexin, PPY, leptin) are involved in hunger? Sexual and Social Motives (1 requirements) Can you describe classic research findings in sexual and social motivation systems? Stress (1 requirements) Can you discuss theories of stress and the effect of stress on physiological and psychological well-being? Theories of Motivation (2 requirements) Can you describe the major theories of emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter two-factor)? Can you explain and provide examples how culture shapes emotional expression and body language? Outline: Theories of Motivation Drive Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Incentive Theory Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Hunger Motivation Biological Basis of Hunger Psychological Factors in Hunger Motivation Eating Disorders Bulimia Anorexia Nervosa Obesity Sexual Motivation Sexual Response Cycle Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation Sexual Orientation Social Motivation Achievement Motivation Extrinsic/Intrinsic Motivation Management Study When Motives Conflict Theories About Emotion James-Lange Theory Versus Canon-Bard Theory Schacter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory) Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion Stress Measuring Stress Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm Reaction Resistance Exhaustion Hint: The key difference between an anorexic and a bulimic is their weight. People who suffer from both disorders tend to be obsessed with food, and some anorexics even binge and purge. However, while anorexics are at least 15 percent below the typical weight of someone their age and size, bulimics’ weight tends to be average or even slightly above. Hint: Achievement motivation is different than optimum arousal. Achievement motivation involves meeting personal goals and acquiring new knowledge or skills. Optimum arousal indicates the general level of arousal a person is motivated to seek, whether or not the arousal is productive in meeting a goal. The concepts might overlap in a person. (For example, a person with high achievement motivation might also have a high optimum level of arousal). However, the concepts refer to difference aspects of motivation. Hint: The James-Lange theory is mentioned for historical purposes. Current theories about emotion demonstrate that while biological changes are involved in emotions, they are not the sole cause of them. Nuts and Bolts: Think of homeostasis as the functioning of a thermostat in your home. A thermostat monitors and maintains a constant predetermined temperature. When the air becomes too hot, the thermostat activates the air conditioner to cool the air to a temperature preselected by the occupant. When the air becomes too cold, the thermostat activates the furnace to warm the air to the set temperature. Homeostasis likewise alerts the body when certain physiological systems become unbalanced. AP Tip: A past multiple-choice question asked students to give an example of the drive-reduction theory. Be prepared to explain how homeostasis is involved in the drive-reduction theory. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how incentives can affect a person’s behavior and influence motivation. Nuts and Bolts: Think of the succession of the hierarchy of needs as high steps to a top floor. One must step on each step (level) to reach the top (self-actualization). If you don’t address each level, then the chances of reaching self-actualization are in doubt; if you don’t step on each step, you won’t reach the top floor – the steps are too big to allow you to skip any. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify which level is the highest in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Be prepared to explain how a person achieves selfactualization. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember that CCK is responsible for short-term satiation is to associate the “Short” or small number of letters in CCK with the “short-term” feeling of fullness. Nuts and Bolts: When people eat a “fatty” meal they tend to feel full for a longer period of time. After people eat a meal low in fat they report feelings of hunger sooner. A “fatty” meal causes more leptin to be released into the bloodstream, causing the sensations of fullness for a longer period of time. In other words, CCK is responsible for short-term satiation; leptin is responsible for longer-lasting feelings of satiation. Nuts and Bolts: You have probably seen the commercial from a candy bar company that claims the candy bar will satisfy you hunger. The main ingredient in a candy bar is sugar. When sugar levels drop and you experience hunger, a candy bar simply raises the amount of sugar in your body, thereby decreasing hunger. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify which factors contribute to hunger and which feelings of satiety. Be ready to explain which factors initiate and stop hunger. AP Tip: A past multiple-choice question asked students to differentiate between the lateral and ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus. Be prepared to explain the role of the hypothalamus in hunger. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain which factors affect the BMR. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain the factors that contribute to obesity. Be ready to explain the disadvantages of the BMI, and how fat cells contribute to obesity. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how eating disorders develop, as well as the difference between anorexia and bulimia. Nuts and Bolts: The reasons why you study for the AP psychology exam could be an indicator of the type of motivation you have. If you are studying for the exam because you want to prove to yourself that you can pass it, that behavior is an indication of competence motivation. However, if you are studying because you want to have the highest score in the class, that is an indication of achievement motivation. Nuts and Bolts: Self-efficacy beliefs are an important factor in passing the AP psychology exam. If you are confident that you can pass the exam, then you will have a better chance of achieving your goal. If you think you are going to fail, then often attitude dictates results. AP Tip: A past multiple-choice question has asked students to differentiate between competence and achievement motivation. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how industrial-organizational psychology can improve the workplace. Nuts and Bolts: When you’re in a good mood you are likely to participate more in class and act nicer to others. However, when you are experiencing negative emotions you probably have a tendency to not focus on the subject matter, and you may respond negatively to other people’s comments. AP Tip: An essay question may ask you to explain how motivation affects emotion. Be prepared to define motivation and emotion and provide examples. Nuts and Bolts: To remember how the autonomic nervous system affect emotions, think of situations in which your heart raced – perhaps in anticipation of bad or good news. For example, when you receive your AP exam score in the mail, your heart rate will probably accelerate before you even open the letter. Nuts and Bolts: Have you ever heard someone say of an angry person, “He’s getting hot under the collar?” In fact, that might be true, as body temperature rises in response to anger. The expression “She got cold feet” could also be factual, because fear lowers body temperature. AP Tip: A free response question might ask you to identify the parts of the brain responsible for emotion. Be prepared to identify each part with an example. AP Tip: One possible essay question might ask you to compare and contrast the major theories of emotions. Be prepared to define and provide examples for each theory. Nuts and Bolts: In the United States, it is not considered the “norm” for a man to cry in public or for a woman to start yelling obscenities at an official during a football game (emotional expression). AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how health psychologist contribute to the study and reduction of stress. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify different types of stressors. Also be prepared to identify the various types of conflicts. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how Walter Cannon and Hans Seyle described the impact of stress on the body. Also be ready to identify the stages of Hans Seyle’s theory. Nuts and Bolts: During final exams, many students develop colds, coughs, and other illnesses. The stress of taking an exam reduces the effectiveness of the immune system, leading to illness. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how Adler and Cohen showed ways in which classical conditioning could affect the immune system. AP Tip: Be able to identify how certain factors can reduce stress. Also be ready to explain the difference between Type A and Type B behavior in relation to stress. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain the difference between problem–and emotion-focused coping. Which cultures use problem–and emotion-focused coping strategies. If you learn only four things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) Motivation can be explained from a variety of perspectives. Biological motivation is controlled by the hypothalamus. Psychological motivation can be explained by the rewards that we receive for performing behavior. Emotions can be explained through a variety of theoretical perspectives, each arguing that emotion emerges in conjunction with physiological response to stimuli. IX. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (7-9%) Developmental psychology deals with the behavior of organisms from conception to death and examines the processes that contribute to behavioral change throughout the life span. The major areas of emphasis in the course are prenatal development, motor development, socialization, cognitive development, adolescence, and adulthood. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Discuss the interaction of nature and nurture (including cultural variations) in the determination of behavior. Explain the process of conception and gestation, including factors that influence successful fetal development (e.g., nutrition, illness, substance abuse). Discuss maturation of motor skills. Describe the influence of temperament and other social factors on attachment and appropriate socialization. Explain the maturation of cognitive abilities (e.g., Piaget’s stages, information processing). Compare and contrast models of moral development (e.g., Kohlberg, Gilligan). 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Discuss maturational challenges in adolescence, including related family conflicts. Explain how parenting styles influence development. Characterize the development of decisions related to intimacy as people mature. Predict the physical and cognitive changes that emerge as people age, including steps that can be taken to maximize function. Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development. Identify key contributors in developmental psychology (e.g., Mary Ainsworth, Albert Bandura, Diana Baumrind, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Carol Gilligan, Harry Harlow, Lawrence Kohlberg, Konrad Lorenz, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky). KEY TERMS: Developmental Psychology Nature versus Nurture Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal Research Teratogens Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Newborn Reflexes Attachment Harry Harlow’s Attachment Research Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Secure Attachments Avoidant Attachments Anxious/Ambivalent Attachments Authoritarian Parents Permissive Parents Authoritative Parents Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Genital Stage Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Initiative versus Guilt Industry versus Inferiority Identity versus Isolation Generativity versus Stagnation Integrity versus Despair Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Schema Assimilation Accommodation Sensorimotor Stage Object Permanence Preoperational Stage Egocentric Concrete Operations Concepts of Conservation Formal Operations Metacognition Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory Preconventional Stage Conventional Stage Postconventional Stage KEY PEOPLE: Konrad Lorenz Harry Harlow Mary Ainsworth Diana Baumrind Lev Vygotsky Sigmund Freud Erik Erikson Jean Piaget Alfred Binet Lawrence Kohlberg Carol Gilligan Dimensions of Development (2 requirements) Can you explain how the zygote develops into a fetus, noting the factors that influence successful fetal development (nutrition, illness, teratogens)? Can you explain the physical and cognitive changes (such as effect on fluid and crystalized intelligence) that occur as people age, and ways to maximize function? Heredity-Environment Issues (1 requirements) Can you describe the influence of temperament, parental involvement, and other social factors on attachment? Developmental Theories (4 requirements) Can you explain Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, noting the key milestones of each stage? Can you compare and contrast different models of moral development (Kohlberg, Gilligan). Can you explain how parenting styles influence development? Can you describe how Erikson’s psychosocial stages outline development? Sex & Gender Roles (1 requirements) Can you describe how sex and gender influence socialization? Research Methods (1 requirements) Can you describe the cross-sectional and longitudinal studies and why both of these studies have different conclusions about the effect of aging on intelligence? Lifespan-Approaches (1 requirements) Can you describe three major issues in developmental psychology (nature v. nurture, stability v. change, and continuity v. stages) OUTLINE: Research Methods Prenatal Influences Genetics Teratogens Motor/Sensory Development Reflexes Rooting Reflex Sucking Reflex Grasping Reflex Moro Reflex The Newborn’s Senses Motor Development Parenting Attachment Theory Harry Harlow Mary Ainsworth Parenting Styles Stage Theories Sigmund Freud Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage Erik Erikson Trust Versus Mistrust Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt Initiative Versus Guilt Industry Versus Inferiority Identity Versus Role Confusion Intimacy Versus Isolation Generativity Versus Stagnation Integrity Versus Despair Cognitive Development Jean Piaget Stage 1 – Sensorimotor Stage 2 – Preoperational Stage 3 – Concrete Operational Stage 4 – Formal Operational Criticisms of Piaget: Information-Processing Model Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg Stage 1 – Preconventional Stage 2 – Conventional Stage 3 – Postconventional Criticisms of Kohlberg Gender and Development Hint: Some students confuse the terms authoritative and authoritarian. Remember that the authoritarian style involves very strict rules without much explanation, while authoritative parents set strict rules but make sure they are reasonable and explained. Hint: Each stage theory describes how different aspects of thought and behavior develop. One stage theory does not necessarily contradict another even though they may say different things about a child of the same age. Be careful when you are contrasting stage theories. Comparing one against another may be like comparing apples with oranges. Hint: If Freud’s psychosexual stages sound out-of-date to you, you are not alone. Many developmental psychologists would say that Freud’s stage theory might have only historical importance and it is not likely to be used in scientific research. AP Tip: Be sure you understand the difference between the influences of maturation (nature) and environment (nurture) on development. Nuts and Bolts: One way of differentiating between the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage is that in the concrete stage, children can only think about concrete information in front of them, whereas formal operational stage children can think about events in the future and things that do not exist in the real world. This could explain why a seventh grader, still in the concrete operational stage, may not be concerned about failing a class and the consequences of doing so on his graduating. AP Tip: Past AP Questions have focused on identifying which stage (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) a child is in when a particular behavior took place. AP Tip: Free-response questions on past tests have asked students to understand the concept of a critical period and to identify the potential effect of missing a particular critical period (e.g., attachment and language). Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the difference between each of the parenting styles is to keep in mind that authoritarian parents are strict and rigid, like barbarians. Permissive parents do not require permission. Authoritative parents are most supportive. Another quick way to remember these styles is to use the acronym APA. AP Tip: Be prepared to examine a behavior and identify the level of moral developments (preconventional, conventional, postconventional) in which the behavior would take place. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember the order of the stages of death and dying/grief is to think of the acronym D.A.B.D.A. AP Tip: Make sure you are able to identify which stage of death/dying/grieving a person is in when demonstrating a certain behavior. Tip: These are the reflexes (Rooting, Sucking, Grasping, Moro, Babinski) we are born with and lose later in life. Humans have other reflexes (for example, eye blinking in response to a puff of air to the eye) that remain with us throughout our life. Humans lose the reflexes (Rooting, Sucking, Grasping, Moro, Babinski) listed in this table as our brain grows and develops. If you learn only five things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Cognitive development refers to the ways in which our ability to think and reason change over our life spans. Two theorists important in the area of cognitive development are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Social development refers to the changes in our ability to interact with others as we age. Our primary caregiver provides us with our earliest social cues. The stages of prenatal development. X. PERSONALITY (5-7%) In this section of the course, students explore major theories of how humans develop enduring patterns of behavior and personal characteristics that influence how others relate to them. The unit also addresses research methods used to assess personality. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Compare and contrast the major theories and approaches to explaining personality: pscyhoanalytic, humanist, cognitive, trait, social learning, and behavioral. Describe and compare research methods (e.g., case studies and surveys) that psychologists use to investigate personality. Identify frequently used assessment strategies (e.g., the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory [MMPI], the Thematic Apperception Test [TAT]), and evaluate relative test quality based on reliability and validity of the instruments. Speculate how cultural context can facilitate or constrain personality development, especially as it relates to self-concept (e.g., collectivistic versus individualistic cultures). Identify key contributors to personality theory (e.g., Alfred Adler, Albert Bandura, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers). KEY TERMS: Personality Type A Type B Stage Theory Freud’s Psychosexual Stage Theory Oedipus Crisis Unconscious Id Ego Superego Defense Mechanisms Womb Envy Personal Unconscious Collective Unconscious Complexes Archetypes Trait Theorists Big Five Traits Factor Analysis Heritability KEY PEOPLE: Sigmund Freud Karen Horney Nancy Chodorow Carl Jung Alfred Adler Hans Eyesnck Raymond Cattell Paul Costa Robert McCrae Temperament Somatotype Theory Triadic Reciprocality or Reciprocal Determinism Self-Efficacy Locus of Control – Internal and External Self-Concept Self-Esteem Self-Actualization Unconditional Positive Regard Projective Tests – Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Self-Report Inventories (MMPI) Reliability Validity Barnum Effect Gordon Allport Hippocrates William Sheldon B.F. Skinner Albert Bandura George Kelly Julian Rotter Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Theories & Approaches (1 requirements) Can you compare and contrast how the different approaches (psychoanalytical, humanistic, trait, social-cognitive, and behavioral) account for personality? Assessment Techniques (2 requirements) Can you describe and compare research methods (interviews, case studies, and surveys) that psychologists use to study personality? Can you evaluate the most commonly used personality assessments (MMPI, TAT, Rorschach inkblot, Myers-Brigs Type Indicator, Big Five inventory) in terms of reliability and validity? Growth & Adjustment (1 requirements) Can you explain how culture (collective or individualistic) affects personality development, especially how it relates to self-concept? OUTLINE: Psychanalytic Theory Freudian Theory Levels of Consciousness Components of Personality Id Ego Superego Psychoanalytical Theory Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage Defense Mechanisms Repression Denial Displacement Projection Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Intellectualization Sublimation Criticisms of Freud Impact of Freudian Theory Psychodynamic Theory Trait Theories Biological Theories Behaviorist Theories Social-Cognitive Theories Humanistic Theories Assessment Techniques AP Expert Tip: Trait theorists argue that traits such as introversion/extroversion are stable across a lifetime. Learning theorists argue that introvert could become extroverts if properly reinforced. Hint: Students frequently confuse the terms subconscious and unconscious. Freud wrote about the unconscious. Hint: Students sometimes confuse the terms “conscious” and “conscience”. Freudian theory puts great emphasis on the contents of the unconscious as opposed to the conscious. We are aware of what is in our conscious mind but unaware of what is in our unconscious. The conscience, on the other hand, is our sense of right and wrong and is typically associated with the superego in Freudian theory. Hint: Students frequently confuse displacement and projection. In displacement, person A has feelings about person B but redirects these feelings onto a third person or an object. In projection, person A has feelings toward person B but believes, instead, that person B has those feelings toward him or her (person A). Hint: Today, the most popular trait theory contends that personality can be described with the big five traits of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and emotional stability. Nuts and Bolts: The role of the unconscious can be compared to an iceberg. The bulk of an iceberg is hidden below the surface, like the unconscious. The visible portion of the iceberg – conscious awareness – does not reflect the overall size of the iceberg. Nuts and Bolts: Think of the ego as the boss of a company of unruly employees. The boss is the decision maker trying to run a successful business. When an employee wants to leave early, it is up to the boss (ego) to compromise with the employee (following the reality principle) to find a better time for him or her to leave, perhaps when the work is done – thus delaying gratification to a more appropriate time. Nuts and Bolts: There may have been a time when you were about to do something inappropriate but stopped when you heard a “little voice” advising you not to. That “little voice” represents your superego. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember the process of identification is to think about which parent disciplines the child during this age. Often a mother will refer the son to the father, saying “I couldn’t get through to your son. You try; he identifies with you”. AP Tip: You should be able to identify the sequence of the psychosexual stages. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember Adler’s inferiority complex is to think about how children often reject parental help. Children often prefer to do something wrong rather than ask for help. The child is trying to achieve superiority and prove that he or she can be in control. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to understand Horney’s viewpoint of how social relationships affect personality is to think about a time you had a disagreement with a friend. After doing this disagreement you probably did not act like yourself. Did you feel a desire for approval from other people, or a need to be in control, or did you just want to be left alone? AP Tip: Be ready to distinguish between each of the neo-Freudians’ contributions to the theory of psychodynamic personality development. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember the role of a trait is to think about a personal ad. Someone creating such an ad often uses traits to describe who they are. For example, a person may describe him or herself as thoughtful, affectionate, or hard-working. The problem with these descriptors is that they do not explain why that individual is thoughtful, affectionate, or hard-working. Nuts and Bolts: Sometimes you might wonder whether someone is the kind of person to perform a particular behavior. For example, if you wonder whether someone is the type to cheat, you would look at a number of traits; mistrustfulness, deceptiveness, or selfishness. Remember: just because someone is selfish does not necessarily mean that he or she is a cheater. Nuts and Bolts: A good way to remember the big-five personality factors is to think of the acronym O.C.E.A.N. O: openness to experience, C: conscientiousness, E: extraversion, A: agreeableness, and N: neuroticism. Nuts and Bolts: To understand the meaning of the social-cognitive perspective, put the name of the perspective into these sentences: Social situations affect the way people think (Cognition). AP Tip: You may be asked to identify the three parts of reciprocal determinism (cognitive, behavioral, and environmental. Nuts and Bolts: To differentiate between deficiency and growth orientation, think about what people stress to measure achievement. A person who emphasizes how you play the game would exhibit growth orientation. On the other hand, a person who believes that it is not how you play the game that is important, but whether you win or lose, would be showing deficiency orientation. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify self-actualization as the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. AP Tip: Be prepared to provide examples of objective and projective personality tests and to explain the advantages of each test. If you learn only six things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Personality refers to patterns of behavior that remain constant across situations. There are different approaches to personality, including psychodynamic, trait, humanistic, and learning theories. Sigmund Freud is responsible for the psychodynamic approach, which states that we are controlled by unconscious forces. Trait theorists argue that our personality is simply a collection of traits. Humanistic theorists argue that humans are basically good and strive for perfection. Learning theorists argue that personality is nothing more than a short hand description for clusters of behavior. XII.TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (5-7%) An understanding of intelligence and assessment of individual differences is highlighted in this portion of the course. Students must understand issues related to test construction and fair use. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Define intelligence and list characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence: -abstract versus verbal measures; -speed of processing. Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence. Compare and contrast historic and contemporary theories of intelligence (e.g., Charles Spearman, Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg). Explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and other techniques to establish reliability and validity. Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve. Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing (e.g., gifted, cognitively disabled). Debate the appropriate testing procedures, particularly in relation to culture-fair test uses. Identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing (e.g., Alfred Binet, Francis Galton, Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, Robert Sternberg, Louis Terman, David Wechsler), KEY TERMS: Standardized Tests Norms Standardization Sample Psychometrician Reliability – Split-Half, Test-Retest, Equivalent Form Validity – Face, Criterion-Related (Concurrent and Predictive), Construct Aptitude Test Achievement Test Intelligence Fluid Intelligence Crystalized Intelligence Multiple Intelligences Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Stanford-Binet IQ Test Wechsler Tests (WAIS, WISC, WPPSI) Normal Distribution Heritability Flynn Effect KEY PEOPLE: Francis Galton Charles Spearman Howard Gardner Daniel Goleman Robert Sternberg Alfred Binet Louis Terman David Wechsler Intelligence (3 requirements) Can you define intelligence and provide evidence supporting whether it is a single entity (g) or has multiple, independent components? Can you compare and contrast theories of intelligence (Charles Spearman, Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg)? Can you provide examples how nature and nurture influence intelligence? Types of Tests (4 requirements) Can you describe the features of the Standard-Binet and the WAIS? Can you contrast achievement v. aptitude tests? Can you explain how psychologists design intelligence tests? Can you identify the accomplishments of the key contributors in intelligence testing research (Alfred Binet, Francis Galton, Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, Robert Sternberg, Louis Terman, David Wechsler)? Standardization & Norms (2 requirements) Can you explain the concept of standardization and explain why intelligence tests need to be restandardized over time? Can you interpret the meaning of scores on the normal curve and describe relevant labels (gifted, intellectually disabled) on this curve? Reliability & Validity (1 requirements) Can you explain how reliability and validly are important criteria in test construction? Ethics & Standards (2 requirements) Can you describe appropriate testing practices, especially those related to culture-fair test uses? Can you provide examples how the stereotype threat may create self-fulfilling prophesies? OUTLINE: Standardization and Norms Reliability and Validity Types of Tests Theories of Intelligence Charles Spearman L.L. Thurstone and J.P. Gifford Howard Gardner Daniel Goleman Robert Sternberg Intelligence Tests Bias in Testing Nature Versus Nurture: Intelligence Hint: Reliability and validity are important terms for you to know. The psychological meaning ascribed to these two terms may differ somewhat from how they are used by the general population. Reliability refers to a test’s consistency, and validity refers to a test’s accuracy. Hint: Even though it is essentially impossible to create a pure aptitude or pure achievement test, tests that purport to measure aptitude seek to measure someone’s ability or potential, whereas achievement tests seek to measure how much of a body of material someone has learned. Hint: Within - group differences are typically larger that between - group differences. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the meaning of Spearman’s g is to think of someone you know who does well in school. Typically an “A” student receives good grades in all of his or her classes, and thus would have a high overall intelligence, or g. Nuts and Bolts: One criticism of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is that they are too broad, and that some intelligences are simply skills that can be modified and enhanced. Nuts and Bolts: It’s important to remember that 50 percent of the individuals who take the WAIS or WISC score between 90 and 110, with 100 being the middle. It is also important to remember that the standard deviation used in an IQ test is 15. So if a person is two standard deviations above the norm, his or her IQ score would be 130. AP Tip: Past multiple-choice questions have asked students to identify different terminology relating to tests. It is important to know these terms in relation to any type of test. AP Tip: A past free-response question asked students to identify bias in IQ test and propose ways to improve IQ scores. Nuts and Bolts: It is important to know that autism is NOT mental retardation. To be classified as mentally retarded a person must have an IQ lower than 70, whereas autism is characterized by an impairment of social skills/functioning. XII.ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR (7-9%) In this portion of the course, students examine the nature of common challenges to adaptive functioning. This section emphasizes formal conventions that guide psychologists’ judgments about diagnosis and problem severity. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Describe contemporary and historical conceptions of what constitutes psychological disorders. Recognize the use of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) published by the American Psychiatric Association as the primary reference for making diagnostic judgments. Discuss the major diagnostic categories, including anxiety disorders, bipolar and related disorders, depressive disorders, dissociative disorders, feeding and eating disorders, neurodevelopmental disorders, neurocognitive disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, personality disorders, schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders, somatic symptom and related disorders, and trauma-and-stress-related disorders and their corresponding symptoms. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of various approaches to explaining psychological disorders: medical model, psychoanalytic, humanistic, cognitive, biological, and sociocultural. Identify positive and negative consequences of diagnostic labels (e.g., the Rosenhan study). Discuss the intersection between psychology and the legal system (e.g., confidentiality, insanity defense). KEY TERMS: Insane DSM Multiaxial Approach Anxiety Disorders Specific Phobia Agoraphobia Social Phobia Generalized Anxiety Disorder Panic Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Somatoform Disorders Hypochondriasis Conversion Disorder Dissociative Disorders Psychogenic Amnesia Fugue Dissociative Identity Disorder Mood of Affective Disorders Major Depressive Disorder Seasonal Affective Disorder Dysthymic Disorder Bipolar Disorder Cognitive Triad Learned Helplessness KEY PEOPLE: Aaron Beck Martin Seligman Schizophrenic Disorders Delusions of Persecution Delusions of Grandeur Hallucinations Disorganized Schizophrenia Paranoid Schizophrenia Catatonic Schizophrenia Waxy Flexibility Undifferentiated Schizophrenia Dopamine Hypothesis Tardive Dyskinesia Diathesis-Stress Model Double Bind Personality Disorders Antisocial Personality Disorder Dependent Personality Disorder Paranoid Personality Disorder Narcissistic Personality Disorder Histrionic Personality Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Paraphilia or Pscyhosexual Disorder Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Autism Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder David Rosenhan Definition of Abnormality (3 requirements) Can you describe the criteria that constitute a psychological disorder? Can you explain the value of the DSM-5 for psychologists (primary references for making diagnostic judgments) and insurance companies (require a label for insurance coverage for therapy)? Can you list positive and negative consequences of using diagnostic labels (e.g. the Rosenhan study)? Diagnosis of Psychopathology (1 requirements) Can you identify the major symptoms and causes of the following disorders: anxiety and somatic symptom and related disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, trauma and stressor related disorders and dissociative disorders? Types of Disorders (1 requirements) Can you discuss the major diagnostic categories (anxiety and somatic symptom and related disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, trauma and stressor related disorders and dissociative disorders) Theories of Psychopathology (1 requirements) Can you evaluate the strengths and the weaknesses of various approaches (medical model, psychoanalytic, humanistic, cognitive, biological, behavioral) in explaining abnormal behavior? OUTLINE: Defining Abnormality Atypical Maladaptive Unjustifiable Theories of Psychopathology Diagnosis of Psychopathology - DSM-IV-TR Types of Disorders Categories of Disorders Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Phobic Disorder Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Panic Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Bipolar and Related Depressive Dissociative Disorders Psychogenic Fugue Psychogenic Amnesia Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) Feeding and Eating Anorexia Bulimia Neurodevelopmental Autism ADHD Dyslexia Tourette’s Neurocognitive Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Personality Borderline Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Paranoid Schizophrenia Disorganized Schizophrenia Catatonic Schizophrenia Somatic Symptom and Related Conversion Disorder Hypochondria Theories About the Cause of Somatoform Disorders Trauma-and-Stressor Related The Rosenhan Study: The Influence of Labels AP Expert Tip: Keep in mind that a common problem in classifying and diagnosing disorders is that what is “atypical”, “maladaptive”, or “unjustifiable” in one country or culture may not be so in another. Hint: People often confuse schizophrenia with DID. Schizophrenics DO NOT have split personalities. Schism does mean break, but the break referred to in the term schizophrenia is a break from reality and not a break within a person’s consciousness. Hint: Do not confuse double binds, a hypothesized cause of schizophrenia, with double blind, a way of eliminating experimenter bias. Hint: Although your vocabulary will generally help you figure out what psychological terms mean, sometimes it will mislead you. For instance, many students incorrectly assume that people who suffer from antisocial personality disorder are merely unfriendly. In reality, as explained, people with antisocial personality disorder are insensitive to others and thus often act in ways that bring pain to others. AP Tip: A possible multiple-choice question may ask about the characteristics of a mental disorder in comparison to normal, “everyday” symptoms. AP Tip: Be prepared to discuss how the medical and biopsychosocial models explain mental disorders. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how stress could contribute to the onset of a mental disorder. Be ready to discuss the diathesis-stress approach in this explanation. AP Tip: A multiple-choice or free-response question might ask you to explain or identify the structure, advantages, and disadvantages of the DSM-IV-TR. Be sure to identify the five axes, as well as the pros and cons associated with labeling individuals with mental disorders. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the types and causes of somatoform disorders. Also, be ready to compare and contrast somatoform to other types of disorders. AP Tip: Be ready to discuss why there is controversy associated with dissociative disorders. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the differences among and symptoms of routine depression, major depression, and dysthymic depression. AP Tip: A free-response question might ask you to identify the symptoms, types, and causes of mood disorders. Also, be prepared to compare and contrast with other types of disorders. AP Tip: Be prepared to discriminate between schizophrenia and dissociative disorder. Nuts and Bolts: To remember the difference between positive and negative symptoms, recall that positive refers to “in addition” – schizophrenics in addition have delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. Connect the work “missing” with negative symptoms – schizophrenics are missing pleasure and motivation features, speech skills and expression of emotion. AP Tip: A free-response question might ask you to identify the symptoms, types, and causes of schizophrenia. You should also be able to compare and contrast schizophrenia to other types of disorders. AP Tip: Be ready to identify the symptoms, types, and causes of personality disorders, and be prepared to compare and contrast them to other types of disorders. AP Tip: A multiple-choice or free-response question might ask you to identify and explain different types of childhood disorders. Be prepared to identify the causes of each disorder. If you learn only five things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Psychological disorders are more prevalent that we might think. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders is the handbook used by mental health professionals to diagnose psychiatric disorders. There are many types of disorders, but they all involve debilitation that makes routine life situations difficult. Schizophrenia is not dissociative identity disorder. It is a disorder that involves a break with reality and auditory hallucinations. Personality disorders are the most difficult disorders to diagnose and treat. XIII.TREATMENT OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR (5-7%) This section of the course provides students with an understanding of empirically based treatments of psychological disorders. The topic emphasizes descriptions of treatment modalities based on various orientations in psychology. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. Describe the central characteristics of psychotherapeutic intervention. Describe major treatment orientations used in therapy (e.g., behavioral, cognitive, humanistic) and how those orientations influence therapeutic planning. Compare and contrast different treatment formats (e.g., individual, group). 4. 5. 6. 7. Summarize effectiveness of specific treatments used to address specific problems. Discuss how cultural and ethnic context influence choice and success of treatment (e.g., factors that lead to premature termination of treatment). Describe prevention strategies that build resilience and promote competence. Identify major figures in psychological treatment (e.g., Aaron Beck, Albert Ellis, Sigmund Freud, Mary Cover Jones, Carl Rogers, B.F. Skinner. Joseph Wolpe). KEY TERMS: Trephining Deinstitutionalization Prevention Psychotherapy Psychoanalysis Free Association Dream Analysis Manifest Content Latent Content Resistance Transference Insight Therapies Humanistic Therapies Client or Person-Centered Therapy Unconditional Positive Regard Active or Reflective Listening Gestalt Therapy Existential Therapies Behaviorist Therapies Counterconditioning Systematic Desensitization Anxiety Hierarchy Flooding Aversive Conditioning Token Economy Cognitive Therapies Attributional Style Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group Therapies Somatic Therapies Psychopharmacology Antipsychotic Drugs Antidepressants Antianxiety Drugs Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Psychosurgery Psychiatrists Clinical Psychologists Counseling Psychologists Psychoanalysts KEY PEOPLE: Sigmund Freud Carl Rogers Fritz (Friedrich, Frederick) Perls Mary Carver Jones Joseph Wolpe B.F. Skinner Aaron Beck Albert Ellis Treatment Approaches (2 requirements) Can you describe the different approaches (psychoanalytic, humanistic, cognitive, biological, behavioral) and how these approaches influence therapeutic planning? Can you summarize the effectiveness of specific treatments used to address specific disorders (Systematic desensitization and phobias, RET and depression, antipsychotic drugs and schizophrenia, SSRIs and depression, etc.)? Modes of Therapy (2 requirements) Can you compare and contrast individual versus group therapy? Can you describe how culture and values influence the therapist-client relationship? Community & Preventive Approaches (1 requirements) Can you describe prevention strategies that build resilience (preventative mental health programs, therapeutic lifestyle changes)? OUTLINE: History Types of Therapy Psychoanalytic Therapy Humanistic Therapies Behavioral Therapies Cognitive Therapies Cognitive Behavioral Therapies Group Therapy Somatic Therapies Eclectic Therapies Kinds of Therapists How Effective is Therapy? AP Expert Tip: Some therapeutic techniques are designed to treat the actual cause of a disorder (Freud), while others treat the symptoms or behaviors associated with the disorder (drug therapy, behavioral therapy). Hint: Some students confuse psychotherapy, a general term used to describe any kind of therapy that treats the mind and not the body, with psychoanalysis, a specific kind of psychotherapy pioneered by Sigmund Freud. AP Tip: A multiple-choice question might ask you to identify some of the techniques associated with psychoanalysis. AP Tip: Be prepared to differentiate between modern approaches and traditional psychoanalysis. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the therapist characteristics associated with client-centered therapy. AP Tip: Be prepared to identify the origins of behavioral therapy, and how this type of therapy is different from psychodynamic and humanistic therapy. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how the contributions of Mary Cover Jones were instrumental in the development of counterconditioning. AP Tip: Be prepared to compare and contrast the counterconditioning techniques discussed and explain how each produces new conditioned responses responsible for alleviating symptoms of psychological disorder or unwanted behaviors. AP Tip: A possible multiple-choice or free-response question might ask you to explain how the principles of operant conditioning can be used for behavioral modification. AP Tip: Be prepared to explain how rational-emotive and cognitive therapy could alleviate symptoms of psychological disorders. AP Tip: One possible multiple-choice question might ask you to identify the advantages of group therapy. AP Tip: Be prepared to compare and differentiate among the different types of psychotherapy. Be able to identify contributors, approaches, advantages, and disadvantages. AP Tip: A possible multiple-choice question might ask you to match a specific drug with the correct category. For example, valium: antianxiety Paxil: antidepressant. AP Tip: One free-response question might ask you to identify the criticisms associated with biomedical therapy. If you learn only five things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) The most common treatment for psychiatric disorders today is the use of medication. Medication is effective as treatment, but is often combined with a form of “talk therapy” to provide a more complete therapeutic technique. Most medications have side effects. Behavioral and cognitive therapies are very popular forms of “talk therapy”. Freudian therapy, though well known, is not utilized much anymore. XIV.SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (8-10%) This part of the course focuses on how individuals relate to one another in social situations. Social psychologists study social attitudes, social influence, and other social phenomena. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Apply attribution theory to explain motives (e.g., fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias). Describe the structure and function of different kinds of group behavior (e.g., deindividuation, group polarization). Explain how individuals respond to expectations of others, including groupthink, conformity, and obedience to authority. Discuss attitudes and how they change (e.g., central route to persuasion). Predict the impact of the presence of others on individual behavior (e.g., bystander effect, social facilitation). Describe the processes that contribute to differential treatment of group members (e.g., in-group/out-group dynamics, ethnocentrism, prejudice). Articulate the impact of social and cultural categories (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity) on self-concept and relations with others. Anticipate the impact of behavior of a self-fulfulling prophecy. 9. Describe the variables that contribute to altruism, aggression, and attraction. 10. Discuss attitude formation and change, including persuasion strategies and cognitive dissonance. 11. Identify important figures in social psychology (e.g., Soloman Asch, Leon Festinger, Stanley Milgram, Philip Zimbardo). KEY TERMS: Attitude Mere Exposure Effect Central versus Peripheral Route to Persuasion Cognitive Dissonance Foot-in-the-Door Foot-in-the-Face Norms of Reciprocity Attribution Theory Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Fundamental Attribution Error Collectivist versus Individualist Cultures False-Consensus Effect Self-Serving Bias Just-World Bias Stereotype Prejudice Ethnocentrism Discrimination Out-Group Homogeneity In-Group Bias Superordinate Goals Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis Bystander Effect Diffusion of Responsibility Pluralistic Ignorance Attraction Research Social Facilitation Social Impairment Conformity Obedience Group Norms Social Loafing Group Polarization Groupthink Deindividuation KEY PEOPLE: Richard LaPiere Leon Festinger James Carlsmith Harold Kelley Robert Rosenthal Lenore Jacobson Muzafer Sherif John Darley Bibb Latane Soloman Asch Stanley Milgram Ivring Janis Phillip Zimbardo Attribution Process (1 requirements) Can you apply attribution theory to explain motives (fundamental attribution error, actor-observer bias, self-serving bias)? Group Dynamics (1 requirements) Can you describe how behaviors affected in the presence of others or being part of a group (social facilitation, social loafing, deindividuation, political polarization, bystander effect)? Conformity, Compliance, Obedience (1 requirements) Can you explain how individuals respond to expectations of others (groupthink, conformity, obedience to authority)? Attitudes and Attitude Change (1 requirements) Can you discuss attitudes and how they can change (central route to persuasion, peripheral route to persuasion, cognitive dissonance? Organizational Behavior (1 requirements) Can you describe the processes that contribute to different treatment of others (in-group/out-group dynamics, ethnocentrism, prejudice, scapegoat theory, just-world phenomenon)? Interpersonal Perception (4 requirements) Can you anticipate the impact of behavior on a self-filling prophecy? Can you compare and contrast implicit and explicit feelings? Can you describe the factors that contribute to attraction (mere exposure effect, passionate vs. companionate love)? Can you describe the factors that contribute to altruism (presence of others, social exchange norm, reciprocity norm)? Aggression & Antisocial Behavior (2 requirements) Can you describe the factors that contribute to aggression (genetics, frustration-aggression principle)? Can you explain various types of conflicts (approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, social trap)? Cultural Influences (1 requirements) Can you explain why situational influences affect members of collective and individualistic cultures differently? OUTLINE: Attitude Formation and Change The Relationship Between Attitudes and Behavior Compliance Strategies Attribution Theory Attributional Biases Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Origin of Stereotypes and Prejudice Combating Prejudice Aggression and Antisocial Behavior Prosocial Behavior Attraction The Influence of Others on an Individuals Behavior Group Dynamics AP Expert Tip: Many sports announcers and reporters are guilty of the FAE when they make guesses about the causes of athletic performance. Hint: Attitudes do not perfectly predict behaviors. What people say they would do and what they actually would do often differ. Hint: Students often confuse self-serving bias and self-fulfilling prophecies, ostensibly because they both contain the word self. Self-serving bias is the tendency to overstate one’s role in a positive venture and underestimate it in a failure. Thus, people serve themselves by making themselves look good. Self-fulfilling prophecies on the other hand, explain how people’s ideas about others can shape the behavior of those others. Hint: Students have difficulty distinguishing between prejudice and discrimination. Remember, the former is an attitude and the latter is a behavior. AP Tip: Since the first AP Psychology exam, one free-response question has inevitably included information from the social psychology chapter. Nuts and Bolts: You can apply self-fulfilling prophecies to yourself as well. If you believe that you are not good at mathematics you will avoid taking any math class, and therefore you will not get better at math. Your behavior, not taking a math class, is being influenced by your belief that you are not good at math. You are unknowingly behaving in a manner that will confirm the prophecy. Nuts and Bolts: Don’t confuse attitude with rudeness or anger. To say that someone is giving you “attitude” implies that the person is being rude or impolite. But if a person asks your opinion on which shoes you like best in a store window, your answer is essentially your attitude, your feelings about the shoes. Nuts and Bolts: Political ads use classical conditioning principles to help sway public opinion. By associating opponents with negative words or images, candidates generally hope to instill a negative public attitude toward them. Nuts and Bolts: One way to remember the mere exposure effect is to think of your favorite song or movie. Sometimes the more you hear the song or see the movie, the more you enjoy it. Nuts and Bolts: An easy way to remember the difference between the central and peripheral routes to persuasion is to recall the “peripheral” means off to the side, whereas “central” means in the middle. So if someone is trying to directly challenge your opinion, he will address that exact position. However, if he is using the peripheral route, he will bring up other issues that may be loosely related to the main issue as a way of getting you to change your opinion or attitude. Nuts and Bolts: One of the quickest ways to change a person’s attitude is to have him or her change a behavior first. AP Tip: You should prepare for a free-response question on identifying ways to change behaviors. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that conforming is done without an expressed request. For example, if you walk into a room and notice everyone is standing up, you will most likely remain standing as well, even though nobody asked you to do so. Complying is done when a person makes a direct request. For example, your teacher asks you to pass your homework to the front of the class, and you do so. Nuts and Bolts: Remember that in order for obedience to occur, the request must come from someone of real or perceived authority. For example, if your teacher asks you to stand up, and you do, you are demonstrating obedience. AP Tip: The concepts of obedience and compliance can be challenging, and therefore will most likely show up on multiple-choice section of the exam. Nuts and Bolts: An example of the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility occurs when you drive past a car accident. If you didn’t actually witness the accident, but were one of many cars driving by, you might not stop and ask if anyone needed assistance because you would assume that other people had already called for help. If you learn only five things in this chapter . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Social psychology refers to how groups influence the behavior of an individual. Impression formation and attribution theory refer to how we make judgments about others. Obedience and conformity both refer to the influence of others on our behavior. Milgram and Zimbardo both did studies in social psychology that seem to be on the ethical edge. Behavior can be influenced if one is in a strongly opinionated group.
