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Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4th Ed) Chapter 7 Memory James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers Memory Memory persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Memory Memory as Information Processing similar to a computer write to file save to disk read from disk Encoding the processing of information into the memory system Memory Storage the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval process of getting information out of memory Memory Short term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly e.g., the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten Long term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Encoding Encoding Effortful Automatic Encoding Sensory Memory immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, frequency and well-learned information, such as word meanings Encoding Effortful Processing encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice Encoding Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 Number of repetitions of list on day 1 64 Encoding Percentage of words recalled Serial Position Effect 90 80 70 tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list What do we Encode? Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words Visual Encoding encoding of picture images Encoding Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream Encoding- Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled Encoding Organization benefits memory Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic encoding) Imagery (visual encoding) Chunks Organization Hierarchies Encoding Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the memory system Attention is selective we cannot attend to everything in our environment William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing Encoding Forgetting as encoding failure Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Short-term Encoding memory Long-term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Encoding Forgetting as encoding failure Which penny is the real thing? StorageRetaining Information Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli StorageShort Term Memory Short Term Memory limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2 Percentage who recalled consonants 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of consonants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) StorageLong Term Memory Long Term Memory virtually limitless capacity we don't have to discard old items to remember new items Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days initially rapid, then levels off with time StorageLong Term Memory Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 12345 10 15 20 25 Time in days since learning list 30 How Does Storage Work? Karl Lashley (1950) trained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces of their cortex and retested their memory of maze partial memory retained Long-Term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention StorageLong Term Memory Amnesia- the loss of memory Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection skills and dispositions also called nondeclarative memory Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage StorageLong Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositionsclassical and operant conditioning effects Retrieval Recall measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier like fill-in-the-blank test Recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only to identify items previously learned like on a multiple choice test Retrieval Relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when relearning material for a second time Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Retrieval Cues Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall Guides to where to look for info Context Effects memory works better in the context of original learning Retrieval Cues Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Land/ water Land/ land Same contexts for hearing and recall Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen eerie sense that "I've experienced this before" cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory what is learned in one state can more easily be remembered when in same state Retrieval Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Encoding Short-term Long-term memory Retrieval memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Forgetting- Interference Learning some items may interfere with retrieving others Proactive (forward acting) Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information Forgetting- Interference Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise history Repression defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information Forgetting Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded Long-term storage - Some items are altered or lost Retrieval from long-term memory depending on interference, retrieval cues moods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Forgetting can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) Memory Construction People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions Imagining events can create false memories Children's eyewitness recall Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony Memory Construction Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed? Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following: Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices associate with peg words- something already stored make up story chunk-acronyms Improve Your Memory Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood Minimize interference Test your own knowledge to rehearse it to determine what you do not yet know
