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Philosophy & Religion
7-1997
The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist
Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the
Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka Opposition
Jeffrey Samuels
Western Kentucky University, [email protected]
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Recommended Repository Citation
Samuels, Jeffrey. (1997). The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka
Opposition. Philosophy East and West, 47 (3), 399-415.
Original Publication URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399912
Available at: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/phil_rel_fac_pub/12
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THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVADA
BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE:
A REEVALUATION OF THE
BODHISATTVA-SRAVAKA OPPOSITION
Samuels
Jeffrey
theterms"Mahayana"and "Hina- Graduate
inthe
In theacademicstudyof Buddhism
student
of
in
are
often
set
contradiction
to
each
and
the
two
vehicles
Department
Religious
other,
yana"
attheUniversity
are describedas havingdifferent
and practices. Studies
aspirations,
teachings,
ofVirginia
The distinctions
made betweentheMahayanaand theHinayana,however,forcetheschoolsintoneat,isolated,and independent
categories
thecomplexities
thatoftenundermine
thatexistconcerning
theirbeliefs,
ideologies,and practices.
Whilesomeofthecategories
usedtodifferentiate
theMahayanaand
the Hinayanaare helpfulin thestudyand interpretation
of Buddhism,
mustcontinually
be reviewed.Thisarticleattempts
thesedistinctions
to
reviewone suchdistinction:
thecommonly
heldtheoretical
modelthat
thatthegoal ofMahayanapractitioners
is to becomebuddhas
postulates
of
the
the
bodhisattva
whereasthe
byfollowing path
(bodhisattva-yana),
is to becomearahantsby following
the
goal of HTnayana
practitioners
Hearer
or
of
the
the
Buddha's
In
demonpath
disciples(riavaka-yina).
the oversimplifications
inherent
in thismodel,thisarticlewill
strating
the
and
of
the
bodhisattva
idealinTheravada
investigate presence scope
and practice.
Buddhist
theory
theMahdyana-Hinayana
By raisingissuessurrounding
opposition,
thatdistinctions
cannotbe made behowever,I am not suggesting
tweenthetwovehicles,noram I proposing
to do awaywiththeterms
theoversimplifica"Mahayana"and "Hinayana."Rather,in exploring
tionsinherent
intheMahayana-HTnayana
itis myintention
dichotomy,
to replacethetheoretical
modelthatidentifies
(1) MahayanaBuddhism
withthebodhisattva-yana
and (2) HTnayana
Buddhism
withthesravakawith
a
model
that
is
more
of
the
two vehicles.In
yina
representative
as isJohnHolt'sstudyofthe
doingso, theimpliedpurposeofthisarticle,
inSriLanka,isto "raisequestions
place and relevanceofAvalokiteivara
the veryutility
of the terms
among studentsof Buddhismregarding
Mahayana ... and Theravada as designatingwhollydistinctivereligio-
historical
constructs"'
(emphasisadded).
Beforeturning
to thepresenceand scope ofthebodhisattva
ideal in
TheravadaBuddhism
it
(theonlyextantschoolofHTnayana
Buddhism),
be
beneficial
to
the
sources
that
the
may
investigate
briefly
identify
withMahayanaBuddhism
and the?ravaka-yana
with
bodhisattva-yana
East& West
Philosophy
Volume47, Number3
July1997
399-415
HTnayana Buddhism. Instead of looking at how this model is appro- ? 1997
priated by scholars of Buddhism,I will turnto the writingsof three byUniversity
of
Hawai'iPress
Mahayana Buddhistsin which thisbifurcationis suggested.
399
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One ofthefirst
who identifies
thebodhisattvaMahayanaBuddhists
with
Buddhism
the
and
withHTnayana
yina
Mahayana
sravaka-yina
Buddhismis Nagarjuna.In his PreciousGarlandofAdvicefortheKing
asks "Since all the
(Rijaparikatha-ratnamilTh),
Nagarjunarhetorically
deeds
and
dedications
of
were
Bodhisattvas
notexplainedin
aspirations,
theHearers'vehicle,howthencouldone becomea Bodhisattva
through
itspath?"2Inanotherinstance,
writesthat"[IntheVehicleof
Nagdrjuna
the Hearers]Buddhadid notexplainthebases fora Bodhisattva's
enWhile
the
with
the
lightenment."3
Nagarjunacompares sravaka-yina
in
these
two
first
he
later
states
that
"the
bodhisattva-yana
passages,
were not mentionedin
subjectsbased on the deeds of Bodhisattvas
the [HTnayanal
satras."4Nagarjuna'sthirdpassage,then,suggeststhat
bodhisattvas
are foundonlyin Mahayanatextsand
subjectsconcerning
areabsentfromall Hinayanatexts.
Another
to upholda Mah5ydna-Hinaydna
disMahayanaBuddhist
tinction
basedon a bodhisattva-srivaka
isAsaiga.As Richard
opposition
S. Cohen illustrates,5s
in
his
that
Asahigaposits,
Mahjyinasotralamkinra,
theGreatVehicleand theHearers'Vehiclearemutually
Their
opposed.6
natureincludesintention,
(i.e.,
contradictory
teaching,employment
on meritand knowledge),
and
means),support(whichis based entirely
the timethatit takesto reachthe goal.7 AfterAsahigadiscussesthe
the sravakaopposingnatureof thesetwo vehicles,he thenidentifies
as
the
lesser
vehicle
and
remarks
that
the
lesser
vehicle
yina
(Hinayana),
is notable to be thegreatvehicle(Mahayana).8
hTnam)
(ydnam
is yetanotherMahayanathinker
who viewstheMahaCandrakTrti
the
as
and
yana
opposed.LikeAsariga,CanHTnayana beingmutually
drakirti
uses the bodhisattva-gravaka
distinction
to separateMahayana
and HinayanaBuddhism
as well as to promote
theMahayanatradition
over and againstHTnayanaBuddhism.In his Madhyamakivatira,
for
instance,he remarksthatthe lesservehicle (HTnayana)is the path
reservedsolelyfordisciplesand solitary
buddhas,and thatthegreater
vehicle(Mahayana)is the path reservedsolelyforbodhisattvas.
Not
withMahayana
associatethe bodhisattva-yina
only does CandrakTrti
he also clingsto thebeliefthattheHinayanaschoolsknow
Buddhism,
the
of
Buddha,the perfect
nothing
"stagesof the careerof thefuture
virtues(paramiti),the resolutions
or vows to save all creatures,
the
totheacquisition
ofthequalityofBuddha,[and]the
ofmerit
application
(as forNagarjuna),
greatcompassion."'In otherwords,forCandrakTrti
theHinayanatradition
does notpresent
a bodhisattva
doctrine.
The pointsraisedbytheseMahayanaBuddhists
are problematic
for
threereasons. First,the dichotomypresentedby both Asanga and Candrakirtisets up an oppositionbetween an ideologyand an institutional
affiliation.
Ratherthan comparingan ideologywithan ideology(bodhiEast
sattva
and
drivaka)or a Buddhistschool withanotherBuddhistschool,
Philosophy &.West
400
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thisopposition
contrasts
one ideology(arahantship
the
through
following
an
In
institutional
affiliation
with
sravaka-ydna)
(MahayanaBuddhism).
to be constructed,
orderfora moreaccuratedistinction
then,we must
eithercomparethebodhisattva-yana
withthesravaka-yina,
or compare
a MahayanaBuddhist
schoolwitha HTnayana
Buddhist
school.
Anotherproblemwiththe ideas putforthby Nagarjuna,Asanhga,
and CandrakTrti
concernstheirstatements
thatMahayanaand HTnayana
Buddhismare mutuallycontradictory
and exclusive.These assertions
undermine
thefactthattheterms"HTnayana"
and "Mahayana"refer
to
numerousschoolsand thatthecategoryof "Hinayana"includeseven
a numberof "proto-Mahayana"
schools (e.g., the Mahasafrghikas).10
these
Byusingtheterms"Mahayana"and "HTnayana"monolithically,
thinkers
of
and
that
are
the
doctrines,
ignore plurality
goals,
paths
presentintheschools.
The thirdprobleminherent
in thestatements
of thesewriters,
and
whichwillbe thefocusof thisarticle,is thattheyassumethatall followersofthe Hinayanaare sravakasstriving
to becomearahantswhile
all followers
oftheMahayanaare bodhisattvas
on thepathto buddhatheexampleoftheonlyextantHTnayana
hood.As we shallsee through
thisis clearlynotthecase.
school,theTheravadin
tradition,
thebodhisattva-sravaka
Beforereevaluating
oppositionas it is preit is firstnecessaryto
sentedby Nagarjuna,Asafiga,and CandrakTrti,
ascertainthepresenceand scope ofthebodhisattva
ideal inTheravada
will
Buddhism.
This
be accomplishedby lookingat thepresenceofthe
ideal intheTheravadaBuddhist
as wellas byinvesPalicanon(theory)
how
the
same
ideal
the
lives
of
Theravada
Buddhists
permeates
tigating
(practice).
Thepresenceofthebodhisattva
idealintheTheravadaBuddhist
Pali
restricted
to GotamaBuddha.The use of the term
canon is primarily
"bodhisattva"
occursina numberofthesottas(Skt:satra)intheMajjhiand Samyutta
wherethe Buddhais purported
ma, Anguttara,
NikJyas
to havesaid:"Monks,beforemyAwakening,
andwhileI was yetmerely
theBodhisatta
notfully-awakened....""In addition
[Skt:bodhisattva],
to referring
to thepresentlifeofGotama,theterm"bodhisattva"
is also
used in relation
to thepenultimate
lifeofGotamainTusita(Pali:Tusita)
heaven,as wellas hisconceptionand birth.12
In latercanonicaltexts,the bodhisattva
ideal is further
developed
and associatedwithnumerousconcepts.These developments
(which
includetheconceptofa bodhisattva
"into
vow)maybe saidto introduce
TheravadaBuddhismwhatin Mahayanastudieshas been called 'the
Bodhisattvaideal.' "13 In the SuttaNip~ta,forexample, theterm"bodhisattva" refersto the historicalBuddha priorto his enlightenment
and
a
set
on
In
the
bodhisattva
ideal
addition,
signifies being
Buddhahood.14
Samuels
in this text is also associated with the quality of compassion. This is Jeffrey
401
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to Gotama'sfather
(Suddhodana)
exemplified
bythesage Asita'sremark
"willcometothefulfillment
thattheyoungbodhisattva-prince
ofperfect
... [and]willstart
outofcomthewheelofTruth
Enlightenment
turning
for
the
of
passion
well-being many."15
In yetanothercanonicaltext,the Buddhavamsa,
the bodhisattva
ideal
ideal is developedto the greatest
extent.Here,the bodhisattva
refers
to an ideal personagewho makesa vow to becomea fullyand
buddha(sammisambuddha)
outofcompassion
completely
enlightened
forall sentient
who
various
acts
of
and who
merit,17
beings,16 performs
In
the
receivesa prophecy
ofhisfuture
buddhahood.18 addition, bodhisattvadepictedin the Buddhavamsa
makesa vow to becomea bodhiis withinreach.Thisis
sattvaonlyafterthe attainment
of arahantship
in
While
the
chronicle
of
Sumedha.
Sumedhawas lyingin
portrayed
to walk on,
the mudand offering
his bodyto the BuddhaDTpankara
Sumedha thought:"lf I so wished I could burnup mydefilements
today.
Whatis the use whileI (remain)unknownof realizingdhammahere?
I willbecomea Buddhaintheworldwith
Havingreachedomniscience,
thedevas."19
Another
idea thatarisesinconjunction
withthebodhisattva
ideal is
theneedtocompletea number
ofbodhisattva
this
(piramitj);
perfections
can be foundmostclearlyin theBuddhavamsa
and theCariydpitaka.20
In thesetwo texts,ten perfections
are delineated,as opposed to six
in
described
certain
perfections
Mahayanatexts(e.g.,theAstasJhasrikiandtheRatnagunasamcayagathd).
TheBuddhavamsa
Prajiap-ramitisOtra
and the Cariyapitaka
also discusshow each ofthetenperfections
may
a
be practicedat threedifferent
levels:a regular
degree, higherdegree,
and an ultimate
degreeofcompletion.
is suggestedin
Thoughtheconceptof threedegreesof perfection
the Cariyapitaka
the Buddhavamsa,21
exploresthe idea in moredetail,
the
with
the
of
first
(dana). To
example
especially
paramitd-giving
how
the
of
was
completedin the
exemplify
perfection giving(dana)
lowestdegree,we findstoriesofhowthebodhisattva
gave peoplefood;
his own sandalsand shade; an elephant;giftsto mendicants;
wealth;
and
even
his
memand
own
drink;
beds,
food,
family
clothing,
offerings;
inthemiddle
howthesame perfection
was fulfilled
bers.22To illustrate
degree,we readhowthebodhisattva
gaveawayhisbodilypartssuchas
ofgivingwas
hiseye.23Andfinally,
to demonstrate
howtheperfection
in the highestdegree,we finda storyof how thebodhisattva
fulfilled
gave awayhisown lifewhenhe was a hare.24
InthePalicanon,theterm"bodhisattva"
is also used inreference
to
otherpreviousbuddhas.Forinstance,in the Mahipadinasuttaof the
DTghaNikcya,the notionof past buddhas (and hence past bodhisattvas)
is elucidated. In the beginningof this sutta,the six buddhas who preEast& West ceded Gotama are mentionedas well as theirnames,theeons when they
Philosophy
402
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and taught),
became buddhas(i.e., whentheyattainedenlightenment
theircaste,theirclan,theirlifespan,thetreeswheretheyattainedenthenumber
oftheirdisciples,theirpersonalattendants,
and
lightenment,
theirparents.25
the livesof thesesix buddhas,
Afterbriefly
outlining
ofthefirst
Gotamabeginsan in-depth
recollection
from
buddha,VipassT,
hislifeinTusitaheavenuntilhe dispersedhismonksforthepurposeof
theteachings.In thisnarration,
theBuddhanotonlyrefers
to
spreading
as a bodhisattva,26
butalso takesthelife
VipassTup to hisenlightenment
eventsofVipassias theexampleforall future
bodhisattvas
and buddhas,
himself.27
Gotama
(retroactively)
including
Anothersectionof the sutta-pitaka
wherethe term"bodhisattva"
to each ofthesixpreviousbuddhasis theSamyutta
pertains
Nikiya.For
sectionofthesecondbook,we findthephrase
instance,in thefourth
"To Vipassi,brethren,
ExaltedOne, Arahant,
BuddhaSupreme,before
his enlightenment,
while he was yet unenlightened
and Bodhisat[ta],
therecame thisthought...."Thissame phrase,then,is used in converses:
junctionwiththeotherfivepreviousbuddhasin thefollowing
and
Sikhi,Vessabhu,Kakusandha,
Kondgamana, Kassapa.28
Whilemostoftheuses oftheterm"bodhisattva"
concernGotama
Buddhaand the numerous
buddhaswho precededhim,thereare also
in the Pali canon to the possibility
references
of futurebuddhas(and
hence bodhisattvas).
For example,in the Cakkavatisrhanddasutta
of
the DTghaNikiya,the Buddhaforetells
ofthefuture
when"an Exalted
One namedMetteyya[Skt:Maitreya],
Arahant,FullyAwakened[i.e.,
sammdsambuddha],
aboundingin wisdomand goodness,happy,with
oftheworlds,unsurpassed
as a guideto mortals
knowledge
willingto be
a
teacher
for
and
and
Exalted
a
led,
men,
One, Buddha,evenas I
gods
am now,"willarise.29
buddhamentioned
ThoughMaitreyais theonlyfuture
specifically,
thepossibility
ofattaining
buddhahoodis notrestricted
solelyto him.In
the SampasidanTyasutta
of the DTghaNikiya,forinstance,Sariputta
is
"In
to
have
said:
the
of
the
Exalted
One
have
I
heard
professed
presence
him say and fromhim have received, that ... in times gone by and
in future
timestherehave been, and will be otherSupremeBuddhas
to
himself
of Enlightenment."30
Thus,
[i.e.,Gotama]inthematter
equal
no longeris the term"bodhisattva"used solelyin conjunctionwith
thebodhisattvaGotama,withotherpastbuddhas,and withMaitreya;
as a possible,albeitdifficult,
ydnais regarded
pathopen to anyonewho
desiresbuddhahood.
This moreexpandeduse of the term"bodhisattva"is explicitly
expressed in the Khuddakapitha.In the eighthchapterof thiscanonical
text(theNidhikandasutta),
thegoal of buddhahood is presentedas a goal
thatshould be pursuedby certainexceptional beings.AfterdemonstratSamuels
ing the impermanenceand uselessness of accumulating and storing Jeffrey
403
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materialpossessionsor treasures,
the suttamentionsanothertypeof
treasure
thatis morepermanent
and whichfollowsbeingsfrombirth
to
birth.Thistreasure
results
fromgiving(ddna),morality
(sTla),abstinence
and
restraint
This
fulfills
all
treasure
(dama).
desires,leadsto
(samryama),
a rebirth
in a beautiful
one
to
become
enables
body,
sovereignof a
and
a
in
and
leads
to
rebirth
the
humanrealm
country
lovingspouse,
is possible).Moreover,
the qualitiesof charity,
(fromwhichliberation
and restraint
lead to thewisdomwhichproducesthe
virtue,
abstinence,
or com"blissof Extinguishment"
ofeitherarahants,
pratyekabuddhas,
We
read:
buddhas.
pletelyenlightened
theperfections
ofa NobleDisreleaseofmind,
Discriminating
knowledge,
theEnlightenment
ofa Silent
Buddha
[i.e.,sJvaka-paramr],
ciple(ofa Buddha)
andtherequisites
for(Supreme)
Buddhahood
[i.e.,paccekabodhi]
[i.e.,budThereallthese(qualities)
canbe obtained
dhabhomi],
bythis(treasure)....
ofmeritorious
forewiseandeducated
menpraise
theacquisition
actions.31
thatthe goal of buddhahoodand the pathto the
Thissuttaillustrates
are no longersimplyassociatedwithspegoal (i.e., bodhisattva-ydna)
cificbuddhasof the past and future;rather,buddhahoodis one of
threepossiblegoals thatmay be pursuedby "wise and educated"
people.32
folThoughthe idea thatanyonemaybecome a buddhathrough
in
Theravada
is
the
Buddhist
the
lowing bodhisattva-yanaonlypresent
to have been taken
Pali canon in seed form,it appears,nonetheless,
in
is
illustrated
the
livesof numerous
Theravadins.
This
seriouslyby
Theravadinkings,monks,and textualcopyistswho have takenthe
to theeventual
vow and arefollowing
thebodhisattva-yina
bodhisattva
attainment
ofbuddhahood.
has itssourceinthe
Therelationship
betweenkingsand bodhisattvas
bodhisattva
careerofGotamaas depictednotonlyin his lifeas Prince
but also in his penultimate
Siddhartha
(Pali: Siddhattha),
earthlylife
exthebodhisattva
As KingVessantara,
whenhe was KingVessantara.
ofgiving.Forinstance,
theperfection
hibitedhiscompassionbyfulfilling
we findthatthe bodhisattva
gave away his elephantto alleviatea
in
his
and his wifeand
drought nearbyKaliniga, wealth,his kingdom,
and was even willingto giveaway hisown lifeout of comchildren,
passionforotherbeings.
fortheclose associationbetweentheinstituThoughtheparadigm
tionof kingship
and buddhahoodcame fromGotamawhenhe was a
itwas quicklyadoptedbyTheravadin
bodhisattva,
kingsbythesecond
C.E.In the
B.C.E. and fullyincorporated
aftertheeighthcentury
century
early examples, we find the relationshipdrawn between kings and
bodhisattvasin numerous,albeit tempered,ways. For instance, King
East
&
West
Philosophy
DuttagamanTexhibitedthe qualityof compassion by refusingto enter
404
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hispreviouslifeas an ascetic(simanera)so that
theheavenlyrealmafter
ofSriLanka
he couldbe rebornas a princeand unitetheregionalrulers
as wellas helpdevelopthesanghaandtheBuddha'steaching.33
Though
in
a
the
he
is
not
referred
to
as
bodhisattva
Mahavamsa,
DuttagamanT
a
as
bodhito
demonstrate
certain
bodhisattvic
Just
qualities.
appears
of an arahantso thathe could be
sattvarenouncestheenlightenment
out
and suffering
reborncountlesstimesinthisworldof impermanence
renouncethe
ofcompassionforall beings,so,too,did KingDuttagamanT
tothisworldofsuffering
forthesake
worldofthedevasinorderto return
oftheBuddhist
and outofcompassionforall inhabitants
on the
doctrine
islandofSriLanka.
Similarexamplesof bodhisattva-like
compassionare exhibitedby
who
is
said
to
have
riskedhis lifeto save the
KingSirisamnghabodhi,
inhabitants
of Sri Lankafroma devastating
and who even
drought34
hisown head in orderto diverta potential
offered
war;35by KingBuddhadasa,who created"happinessby everymeansforthe inhabitants
of the island ... [and who was] giftedwith wisdom [i.e., panf-ld]and
virtue[i.e.,sTla],... endowedwiththetenqualitiesofkings[i.e.,theten
rajadhammas],... [and] lived openly before the people the life that
bodhisattas
lead and had pityfor(all) beingsas a father(has pityfor)
his children";36
and especiallyby KingUpatissa,who fulfilled
theten
bodhisattva
his
during reign.37
perfections
betweentheinstitution
C.E.,theamalgamation
Bytheeighthcentury
ofkingship
Atthistime,we find
and bodhisattvas
becameevenstronger.
evidenceofcertainTheravadin
kingsinSriLanka,Burma,and Thailand
who openlydeclaredthemselves
to be bodhisattvas.
Forexample,King
Malla
NiSSanka
(1187-1196 C.E.)of Polonnaruva,
Ceylon,statesthat"I
willshowmyselfin my[true]bodywhichis endowedwithbenevolent
tothevirtuous
regardforand attachment
qualitiesofa bodhisattva
king,
who likea parent,protects
In otherepitheworldand thereligion."38
thereis a reference
to KingParakramabahu
VI as
graphicalmarkings,
"Bodhisatva[sic] ParakramaBahu."39Finally,the conflation
of kings
and bodhisattvas
on theislandofSriLankais established
moststrongly
Mahinda
who
not
to
himself
referred
as
a
bodhisattva
as
IV,
King
by
only
a resultof his bodhisattva-like
resolutedetermination,40
butwho even
wentso faras to proclaimthat"nonebutthebodhisattas
wouldbecome
Lanikd."41
kingsofprosperous
In Burma,therelationship
betweenkingsand bodhisattvas
is exemwith
claimed
himself
who
to
be
"the
bodhisatva
plified
KingKyanzittha,
[sic],who shall verilybecome a Buddhathatsaves (and) redeemsall
beings,who is greatin love (and) compassionforall beingsat all times...
[and] who was foretoldby the Lord Buddha, who is to become a true
Buddha."42 In anotherinstance,KingAlaungsithuwrotethathe would
Samuels
liketo build a causeway to help all beings reach "The Blessed City[i.e., Jeffrey
405
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Finally,kingsSriTribhuvanaditya,
nirvana]."43
ThiluiriMarh,CafisOI,
and Natonfmyd
all referred
tothemselves
as bodhisattvas.44
In Thailand,a similarconnectionis drawn.One exampleofa Thai
is Lu T'ai of Sukhothaiwho "wishedto become a
bodhisattva-king
Buddhato helpall beings... leavebehindthesufferings
oftransmigration."45The relationbetweenKingLu T'ai and bodhisattvahood
is
also manifested
at hisordination
that
bytheeventsoccurring
ceremony
weresimilarto "theordinary
courseof happeningsin the careerof a
Bodhisattva.''46
Whileitmaybyarguedthatthesebodhisattva
kingswereinfluenced
whentheyappropriated
certainbodhiby certainMahayanadoctrines
sattvicqualitiesortookthebodhisattva
the
vow,thisdoes notinvalidate
in
between
and
bodhisattvas
Theravada
Buddhism.
relationship
kingship
betweenthesebodhisattva
kingsand
Thougha linkmaybe established
thisdoes notdismissthefactthatthebodhisattva
MahayanaBuddhism,
ideal was takenseriouslyby Theravadinkingsor thatthe bodhisattva
and practice.Moreover,
idealhas a place inTheravadaBuddhist
theory
while it maybe possibleto positthatthesekingswere influenced
by
thatthese kings
Mahayanaconcepts,it is impossibleto demonstrate
wereonlyinfluenced
justbecausea kingmay
byMahayanaBuddhism;
notmeanthatcertain
have been influenced
ideas
does
by Mahayana
the ideas of a bodhisattva
as foundin the
Theravadaideas,including
and Cariyapitaka,
werenotequallyinfluential.
Buddhavamsa
is also
The presenceofa bodhisattva
ideal inTheravadaBuddhism
who
the
of
other
Theravadins
have
numerous
by
examples
represented
eitherreferred
to themselvesor have been referred
to by othersas
forexample,
bodhisattvas.
The celebratedcommentator
Buddhaghosa,
as being,
was viewedby the monksof the Anuradhapura
monastery
of Metteyya.47
Thereare even some
withoutdoubt,an incarnation
instancesof Theravadinmonkswho expressedtheirdesireto become
thetwentieth-century
buddhas.Forinstance,
bhikkhu,
fullyenlightened
of Sri Lanka(ca. 1900), afterbeingdeemed worthyof
Doratiydveye
teacher,refused
receivingcertainsecretteachingsby his meditation
to practicesuchtechniquesbecause he feltthatitwouldcause himto
orwithin
enteron thePathand attainthelevelofarahantinthislifetime
Thiswas unacceptableto
sevenlives(i.e., by becominga sottipanna).
who had already
he
saw
himself
as
a
bodhisattva
because
Doratiy~veye
madea vowto attainbuddhahoodinthefuture.48
Thevowto becomea buddhawas also takenbycertainTheravadin
on theIJtaka
textualcopyists
andauthors.
Theauthorofthecommentary
(the1Jtakattakath3),
forexample,concludeshis workwiththevow to
complete the ten bodhisattvaperfectionsin the futureso that he will
become a buddha and liberate"the whole worldwithitsgods fromthe
&
West
East
Philosophy
bondage of repeated births... [and] guide themto the most excellent
406
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authorwho
Another
and tranquilNibbdna."49
exampleofa Theravadin
is the
the bodhisattva-ydna
wishedto become a buddhaby following
SriLanrkan
monkMaha-Tipitaka
subCOlabhaya.In histwelfth-century
on the Questionsof KingMilinda,he "wrotein thecolocommentary
phon at the end of the workthathe wishedto become a buddha:
BuddhoBhaveyyam
'May I becomea Buddha.'"50
A Reevaluation
oftheBodhisattva-Srjvaka
Opposition
While manycanonical uses of the term"bodhisattva"referto
Gotamapriorto hisattainment
ofbuddhahood,inothercanonicaltexts
as
the
the
(such
Buddhavamsa), termdesignatesa beingwho, out of
compassionforotherbeings,vows to become a fullyand completely
buddha
variousactsofmerit,
enlightened
performs
(sammrsambuddha),
renouncesthe enlightenment
of arahants,receivesa prophecyof his
future
orcompletesthetenbodhisattva
buddhahood,and fulfills
perfecIn
tions. addition,
thebodhisattva
idealwas also developedinterms
ofits
Notonlydoestheword"bodhisattva"
toGotamaand
application.
pertain
all previousbuddhasbeforetheirenlightenment,
italso appliesto any
who
wishes
to
the
to
buddhahood.
Thisnew
being
pursue path perfect
in
resulted
a
more
adherence
to
theidealbynumerdevelopment
general
ous Theravadin
textualscholars,and even laypeople.51
kings,monks,
The presenceand scope ofthebodhisattva
ideal inTheravadaBuddhisttheoryand practice,then,appearsto belie Nagarjuna's,
Asafiga's,
and CandrakTrti's
claimsnotonlythatthe"subjectsbased on thedeeds
of Bodhisattvas
werenotmentioned
inthe [HTnaydnal
satras,"butalso
thatthe lesservehicle(HTnayana)
knowsnothing
of the "stagesof the
careerof the futureBuddha,52
the perfect
virtues(piramiti),the resolutionsor vows to save all creatures,
the applicationof meritto the
acquisitionof the qualityof Buddha,[and] the greatcompassion."In
doctrinein the Budaddition,thepresenceofa developedbodhisattva
and the Cariyapitaka
also calls intoquestionthecommonly
dhavamrsa
held beliefthatthebodhisattva
ideal underwent
develmajordoctrinal
thereare numerous
similarities
opmentsin earlyMahayanaBuddhism;
betweenthe bodhisattva
ideal as foundin the Buddhavamsaand as
foundin certainearlyMahayanaBuddhist
textssuchas the RatnagunaBoth
of
these
for
texts, instance,expressthe need for
samcayagithi.53
the completionof certainbodhisattva
the importance
of
perfections,
and
makinga vow to become a buddha,the notionof accumulating
of buddhahood,the roleof compasapplyingmeritfortheattainment
of
certain
bodhisattva
sion,and theimplicit
presence
stages.
Even thoughthe bodhisattvaideal did not undergosubstantialdoctrinaldevelopmentsbetween the latercanonical textsand certainearly
Mahayanatexts,itwas developedin termsof itsapplication.Whereas
Samuels
the goal of becoming a buddha becomes the focus of the Mahayana Jeffrey
407
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thisgoal remainsde-emphasized
in theTheravadin
tradition.
tradition,
In otherwords,althoughthebodhisattva
ideal in MahayanaBuddhism
becomesa goal thatis appliedtoeveryone,
thesameidealinTheravada
is reserved
fortheexceptionalperson.Thisdistinction
Buddhism
is describedbyWalpolaRahula:
theTheravadins
believethatanyone
canbecomea bodhisattva,
Though
they
orinsist
that
become
isnot
do notstipulate
must
a bodhisattva-this
everyone
considered
tobe reasonable.
todecidewhichpathto
Itisuptotheindividual
of
that
the
that
of
the
orthatoftheSamyaktake,
Sravaka,
Pratyekabuddha,
sambuddha[i.e.,sammisambuddha].54
In
The stateof buddhahoodis highlypraisedin bothtraditions.
thispraiseforand focuson theidealofbuddhaMahayanaBuddhism,
centeredon thebodhihood has resultedin a vastamountof literature
on
the
otherhand,the high
sattvaideal. In the Theravadin
tradition,
for
has
never
led
to
a
universal
buddhahood
applicationofthe
regard
in whichthe
goal, nor has it resultedin a vast amountof literature
is
As
K.
R.
bodhisattva
delineated.
Norman
concept
posits:"The Budis
therefore
a
Bodhisattva
butitwas not
doctrine,
developed
dhavarmsa
in
even
the
Abhidharma."55
developedfurther,
Theseabove-mentioned
differences
betweenthetwotraditions
are
essentialand are a usefulmeansto distinguish
TheravadafromMahathe bodhisattva-yana
yana Buddhism.Ratherthansimplyidentifying
withthe variousMahayanaschools and the sravaka-yfna
withthe
schools(as does theold model,whichillustrates
the
numerous
HTnaydna
ideas put forthby Nagarjuna,Asanrga,
and CandrakTrti),
the revised
thatexist
theoretical
modelmaymoreaccurately
thedifferences
portray
to MahayanaBuddhism
as a vehicle
betweenthetwoydnasbyreferring
inwhichthebodhisattva
idealis moreuniversally
applied,andtoTheravida Buddhism
as a vehiclein whichthebodhisattva
ideal is reserved
forand appropriated
certain
by
exceptionalpeople. Put somewhat
the
while
and the goal of buddhahood
differently,
bodhisattva-ydna
continuesto be acceptedas one of threepossiblegoals by followers
of TheravadaBuddhism,
thissame goal becomesviewedas the only
followers
ofMahayanaBuddhism.
Hence,itshould
acceptablegoal by
the
is not
be stressed
thatthechangeintroduced
by Mahayanatraditions
butrather
so muchan invention
ofa newtypeofsaintora newideology,
itintoprominence.56
a takingofan exceptionalidealand bringing
NOTES
An earlierversionof thisarticlewas presented
at theAmericanAcadWest
East
&
Plains
of
Mountains-Great
Philosophy
Region,in April1995.
emy Religion,Rocky
408
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in itscompletion.
I wouldlike
Numerous
peoplehavebeen instrumental
to thankJoseCabez6n, RobertLester,and ReginaldRay forreading
on how it mightbe
the roughdrafts
and makingvaluablesuggestions
improved.I also wish to thankthe two anonymousreadersfortheir
commentsand suggestions.
Finally,I would like to thankmy wife,
in all stagesoftheproBenedicteF. Bossut,forherdirectinvolvement
ductionofthisarticle,
especiallyforhereditorial
suggestions.
Anyerrors,
thatremain,
and inaccuracies
aresolelytheresponhowever,
oversights,
oftheauthor.
sibility
1 - JohnC. Holt,Buddhain theCrown:Avalokitesvara
in theBuddhist
Traditions
ofSriLanka(New York:OxfordUniversity
Press,1991),
viii-ix.
pp.
2 - Nagdrjuna,
PreciousGarlandofAdvicefortheKingand theSongof
theFourMindfulnesses,
trans.Jeffrey
Hopkinsand LatiRimpoche,
The Wisdomof TibetSeries,no. 2 (London:GeorgeAllenand
Unwin,1975),v. 390.
3 -Ibid., v. 391.
4 - Ibid.,v. 393.
5 - RichardS. Cohen, "DiscontentedCategories:HTnayanaand
Journalof theAmerican
Mahayanain IndianBuddhistHistory,"
of
63
2-3.
(1)
(1995):
Academy Religion
pp.
6 - Asanrga,
trans.SurekhaVijayLimaye,BibMahjyanasCitralamrnkra,
liothecaIndo-Buddhica
Series,no. 94 (Delhi: Sri SatguruPublications,
1992),1 :9.
7 - Ibid., 1 : 10.
8 - YanamhTnamhTnameva tatna tanMahjydnambhavitum
arhati
oftheHTnayana
schoolsofBuddhism
with
(ibid.).Theidentification
the?ravaka-yina
madebyAsarigahasbeenadoptedbycertainlater
HarDayal makesthissame identification
scholars.Forinstance,
as
follows:"Corresponding
to thesethreekindsof bodhi,thereare
threeyanasor "Ways,"whichlead an aspirantto the goal. The
thirdydna was at firstcalled the bodhisattva-yana,
but it was
The
re-named
other
two
subsequently
mahd-yina.
yanas(i.e.,the
the
and
werespokenofas the
sravaka-yina
pratyekabuddha-yjna)
Doctrinein BuddhistSanskrit
Liter(The Bodhisattva
hTna-yana"
ature[Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass,
The
identification
11).
1975], p.
of HTnayanaBuddhismwiththe sravaka-yana
is also made by
in
scholarslikeLeonHurvitz, Scripture
oftheLotusBlossomofthe
Fine Dharma (New York:Columbia University
Press,1976), p. 116,
and M. Monier-Williams,A Sanskrit-English
Dictionary (Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass,1990), p. 1097.
Samuels
Jeffrey
409
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9 - Louis de La Vallie Poussin,"Bodhisattva,"
in Encyclopaediaof
and
Ethics
York:
Charles
Scribner's
(New
Sons, 1913),
Religion
8:334.
10 - AndreBareau,Les Sectes Bouddhiquesdu PetitV6hicule(Paris:
Ecole Franpaise
1955).
D'Extreme-Orient,
11 - "Pubbeva me,bhikkhave,
bodhisambodhi,anabhisambuddhassa
sattassasato,edad ahosi." The suttasin whichtheword"bodhisattva"followsthispreludeare: MajjhimaNikdya1:17, 92, 114,
163, 240; 2:93, 211; 3:157; Anguttara
Nikiya3:240; 4:302,
438; and Samyutta
Nikdya2:4; 3:27; 4:233; 5:281, 316. Unless
otherwiseindicated,
to theP5licanon are fromthe
all references
of
the
Text
translation
Pali
Society.
English
12 - MajjhimaNikdya3:119-120, and DighaNikiya2:108.
13 - RichardGombrich,
of FormerBuddhasin the
"The Significance
TheravadinTradition,"BuddhistStudiesin Honourof Walpola
Rahula,ed. SomaratnaBalasooriyaet al. (London:GordonFraser
Gallery,1980),p. 68.
14 - H. Saddhatissa,trans.,The Sutta-Nipata
(London:CurzonPress,
v.
683.
1985),
15 - Ibid.,v. 693.
16 - Thevowto becomea buddhaincludesboththequalitiesofmental
determination
(i.e., manopanidhi)and aspiration(abhinfharakatoengageinthelongand arduouspath
rana)toattainbuddhahood:
to completeand perfect
(i.e.,
enlightenment
sammrsambuddha).
to becomea buddhais made
Whereasthe mentaldetermination
to oneselfand is analogousto the Mahayanaconceptof
silently
theaspiration
is usually
or "thought
of Enlightenment,"
bodhicitta
made in the presenceof an existingbuddha.Thoughthe mental
to becomea buddhaoccursonlyonce, theaspiradetermination
tionto attainbuddhahoodmustbe repeatedin the presenceof
to theBuddhaall subsequentbuddhas(I. B. Horner,introduction
oftheBuddha],SacredBooksoftheBuddhists,
vamsa[Chronicles
vol. 31 [London:PaliTextSociety,1975],pp. xiv-xv).Theclearest
2A: 56 ff.,
vow is foundin Buddhavamsa
exampleofa bodhisattva
wherethebodhisattva
Sumedhathought:
overalone,beinga manawareofmy
Whatis theuse ofmycrossing
East& West
Philosophy
I willcausetheworldtogether
with
strength?
Havingreachedomniscience,
of
thedevasto crossover.Cutting
the
stream
through
shattering
sarmsara,
in theshipof Dhamma,I willcause the
thethreebecomings,
embarking
worldwiththedevasto crossover.
410
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17 - A listofthevariousmeritorious
actsperformed
byGotamato each
ofthetwenty-four
buddhas
is
delineated
previous
by I. B. Horner,
in herintroduction
to theBuddhavamsa,
pp. xlixff.One example
of a meritorious
act performed
fora Buddhacan be foundin
the chronicleof Sumedha.When Sumedhaheardthatthe then
buddha-DTpahkara-wasto pass along a road,he, as an act of
to cleara sectionofthepath:
offered
merit,
WhenI heard"Buddha,"
zestaroseimmediately.
Bud"Buddha,
Saying
thereelated,stirred
in mind,I
dha" I expressed
myhappiness.
Standing
"HerewillI sowseeds[ofmerit];
indeed,letnotthemoment
reasoned,
I myself
fora Buddha,
will
pass!Ifyouareclearing
givemeonesection.
2A:42 ff.).
alsoclearthedirect
way,thepathandroad"(Buddhavamsa
thesectionoftheroadallotted
BeforeSumedhawas able to finish
to him,DTpahkara
arrivedaccompaniedbyfourhundred
thousand
As a resultofnothavingfinished
histaskofpreparing
the
arahants.
inthemudand offered
hisbody
himself
road,Sumedhaprostrated
forwalkingon (2A: 52-53).
to DTpahkara
18 - See, forinstance,Buddhavamsa2A: 61 ff.These developments
on thewaysinwhichtheterm"bodhisattva"
is
havea greataffect
Buddhais a Bodhisattva
used.As Gombrich
posits,"Anyfuture
(by
but withthe appearanceof thistheoryone formally
definition),
becomesa Bodhisattva
bytakinga vow inthepresenceofa Budof Former
dha and receivinghis prediction"("The Significance
Buddhas,"p. 68).
19 - Buddhavamsa2A: 54-55.
numerous
timesintheBuddhaare mentioned
20 - The tenperfections
2A:
117 ff.,4:14, 5:20,
for
Buddhavamsa
vamsa.See,
example,
and 6:14.
21 In Buddhavamsa1: 76-77, Sdriputta
asks the Buddhaabout his
how
thetenperfections.
and
he
fulfilled
He
of
process Awakening
thenasks:"Of whatkind,wiseone, leaderoftheworld,wereyour
howthe
How werethehigherperfections
tenperfections?
fulfilled,
ultimate
perfections?"
1 :1-1 :8 and 1 :9.
22 - Cariyapitaka
23 - Ibid., 1:8:2-3.
24 - Ibid.,1 :10:9, 1 :10:22-23.
25 - DTghaNikiya 2:1-7.
26 - For instance,we find:"Now VipassT,brethren,when as a Bodhisat[ta],he ceased to belong to the hostsof the heaven of Delight,
descended into his mother'swomb mindfuland self-possessed"
Samuels
Jeffrey
(DrghaNik;ya 2 :12).
411
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27 - In manyof the followingparagraphs,
forinstance,we findthe
"It
is
the
that...." (Ayametthadhammati)
rule,brethren,
phrase
usedto refer
totheparadigm
setbyVipassT.
28 - Samyutta
buddhasmentioned
inthe
Nikiya2:4 ff.Thesixprevious
and
are
increased
to
and
Samyutta
Nikjyas
Digha
twenty-four even
in
to twenty-sevenlatercanonicaltextssuchas theBuddhavamsa.
Inyeta latercanonicaltext,theApadjnaoftheKhuddaka-Nikiya,
thenumber
ofpreviousbuddhasincreasesto morethanthirty-five.
29 - DighaNikjya3:76.
30 - Ibid.,3 :114. Thoughthepossibility
fortheexistenceofotherfuture
buddhasbeside Metteyyais mentionedonly briefly
in the Pali
in
other
there
are
morespeTheravadin
canon,
texts,
post-canonical
cificreferences
tofuture
in
bodhisattvas
and buddhas.Forinstance,
the Dasabodhisattuppattikathd,
the Dasabodhisattaddesa,
and in
one recensionoftheAnigatavamrsa
Desand,theninebodhisattvas
who willfollowMaitreya
inone recenare mentioned.
Moreover,
sion ofthe Dasabodhisattuppattikathi,
we even findtheplaces of
residence
ofsevenofthetenbodhisattvas:
Rama,Pasena,
Metteyya,
and Vibhbtiare presently
in
heaven
and Subhoti,
Tusita
residing
and
are
in
now
heaven.
Thus, it
Tdvatimsa
Parileyya
N5lgiri,
tradition
certain"celesappearsthattheTheravadin
acknowledges
tial" bodhisattvas
who are currently
in
various
residing
heavenly
realmsand notthattheonlyrecognizedbodhisattva
inTheravada
Buddhismis Maitreya(EdwardConze, Thirty
Yearsof Buddhist
Studies:SelectedEssaysbyEdwardConze [Oxford:
BrunoCassirer,
1967],p. 38).
31 - Khuddakapitha8:15-16.
32 - Thoughtheaccessibility
ofthesethreegoals to all beingsis only
in
mentioned
the
in the Upjsakajanjlainbriefly
Khuddakapitha,
with
text
all
kara(a twelfth-century
Pali
ethics),
dealing
layBuddhist
threewaysof liberation
are clearlyadmitted
(HajimeNakamura,
IndianBuddhism:
A SurveywithBibliographical
Notes[Osaka:Kufs
Publication,
1980],p. 119).
33 - Mahjvamsa 22:25-41.
34 - Ibid.,36: 76. Thereis a remarkable
parallelbetweenKingSirisamwho
risked
his
life
to
a devastating
avert
and
ghabodhi,
drought,
who
his
to
avert
a
KingVessantara, gave away
preciouselephant
in
drought Kalifga.
35 - Mahavamsa 36:91 ff.The willingnessto offerhis own lifeto avert
the potentialsuffering
of hissubjectsappears to have some originin
West
East
&
life
the
of
Philosophy
KingVessantara,who was willingto offerhis lifeto fulfill
412
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theperfection
ofgiving.After
on thebodhisattva-like
commenting
Holt
natureofKingSirisamghabodhi,
John
argues:"By hisactions,
the
royal
Sirisanghabodhi
veryclearlycuts
figureof an earthly,
and almosta Mahayanabodhisattva
at that"(Buddha
bodhisattva,
in theCrown,p. 59).
37:106 ff.
36 - Cilavamrsa,
37 - Ibid.,37:180.
38 - EpigraphiaZeylanica, 2 : 76.
on pages68-69 ofthesame
39 - Ibid.,3:67. Thispassageis translated
volume.
40 - Ibid., 1 :227.
41 - Ibid., 1 : 240.
42 - EpigraphiaBurmanica,1 :146.
43 - P. M. Tin, "The ShwegugyiPagoda Inscriptions,
Pagan 1141 A.D.,"
TheJournal
oftheBurmaResearchSociety10 (2) (1920): 72.
44 - T. Tun, "Religion in Burma,A.D. 100-1300," The Journalof the
BurmaResearchSociety42 (1959): 53.
45 - E. Sarkisyanz,
BuddhistBackgrounds
of the BurmeseRevolution
(TheHague:Martinus
1965),
Nijhoff,
p. 47.
intheReignofLuT'ai ofSukhodaya,"in
46 - B. W. Andaya,"Statecraft
and
of Powerin Thailand,Laos, Burma,ed.
Religion
Legitimation
BarwellL.Smith(Chambersburg:
Associates,
1978),
Conocosheague
p. 13.
47 - CIlavamsa 37:242. In commenting
on this story,Holt posits:
"What this... seem[s] to suggestis thatnotonlydid Maitreyacome
to be associatedwithvisionsof perfected
but he also
kingship,
seemsto have been continuously
associatedwiththe ideal ofthe
monk"(Buddhain theCrown,p. 8). EventhoughBudperfected
ofMetteyya,
he is
dhaghosawas depictedas beingan incarnation
neverdescribedas takinga bodhisattva
vow and as practicing
certainbodhisattva
perfections.
48 - F. L. Woodward,trans.,A Manual of a Mystic:Beinga TranslationfromthePaliand SinhaleseWorkEntitled
"The Yogavachara's
Manual"(London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1916),pp. xvii-xviii.
49 - H. Saddhatissa, The Birth-Stories
of the Ten Bodhisattasand the
Sacred
Books of the Buddhists,vol. 29
Dasabodhisattuppattikatha,
Samuels
Text
(London: Pali
Jeffrey
Society,1975), pp. 38-39.
413
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50 - MilindaTfTk
(PaliTextSociety),p. 73; quotedinWalpolaRahula,
du
bodhisattva
dans le Theravadaet le Mahayana,"Jour"L'ideal
nalAsiatique,1971,p. 69.
51 - Thereis evidencethatsuggests
thatcertainlaypeople livingin Sri
Lankatookbodhisattva
vows to attainbuddhahood.Forexample,
we findthattwoSriLankans,
after
theirchildren
and wives
freeing
fromslavery,
dedicatedthemeritderivedfromtheseactions"for
thebenefit
ofall beings"(Epigraphia
Zeylanica,4:133, nos. 1-4)
as well as to theirown attainment
of "Buddhahoodas desired"
(ibid.,4:133, nos. 2-3). We also finda similarwishmade by a
and eighthcenturies
and
"lay" personwho livedbetweenthefifth
who sculptedorcommissioned
thesculpting
ofa rockintheshape
of a stopa.The personthendedicatedthemeritaccruedfromhis
forthebenefit
of all beingsand forhis attainment
of
undertaking
buddhahood.He writes:
torelive
all the
rebirth,
Bythismerit,
mayI be able,inevery
succeeding
oftheworldandtobestowcomplete
[onhumanity].
happiness
suffering
befullofforbearance
andcompassion.
[MayI alsoalways]
By thismerit,may I vanquishthe foes,Mara ... and sin; and having
attained
tothat
state
ofBuddhahood,
mayI,withmyhandofgreat
supreme
deliver
from
theextensive
of
compassion,
suffering
humanity
quagmire
northeellipses
thebrackets
aremine).
3:161; neither
samsira
(ibid.,
One cautionary
theseexamplesmustbe made.
note concerning
Whilethereis evidencethatcertainSriLankanstooka bodhisattva
evidenceto suggestthatthesepeople
vow,thereis notsufficient
were,infact,Theravidins.
52 While the conceptof the bodhisattva
stages is not overtlydelineatedin the Buddhavamsa,
it is implicit
in thetext.The stages
foundin the Buddhavamsa,
though,closely resemblethe four
in
outlined
one
section
oftheMahivastu,and notthetradibhQmi
ten
in
the
tional stagesfound
Sitra.Thesefourstages
DasabhQmika
outlinedintheMahivastu(1 : 1 and46 ff.)are:(a) thenatural
career
in
which
a
bodhisattva
merit
acquires
(prakrti-caryi),
by livinga
alms
to
the
and
the
life,giving
righteous
sangha, honoring buddhas;
in whicha bodhisattva
the
(b)
resolving
stage(pranidhana-caryi),
makes a vow to attainbuddhahood;(c) the conforming
stage
in whicha bodhisattva
advancesto his goal by
(anuloma-caryd),
theperfections
and finally,
(d) the preserving
fulfilling
(piramitd);
a
is destinedto bebodhisattva
whereby
stage(anivartana-caryi),
comea buddhaandcannotturnbackfrom
thepathtobuddhahood.
East& West
Philosophy
In the Buddhavamsa, these four stages are implicitin the
chronicleof Sumedha. For example, Sumedha firstperformedan
act of meritto the Buddha Diparnkaraby lyingin the mud (natural
414
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to becomea buddhain
career);he thenmadea mentalresolution
the future(resolvingstage);he thenexamined(and workedon
thetenperfections
he
completing)
(conforming
stage);and finally,
of buddhahoodby receiving
became assuredof the attainment
fromDTpanrkara
and by the occurrencesof certain
a prediction
that
himto resolveto attainbuddhaevents
caused
supernatural
totheMahdvastu,
all of
hood (preserving
however,
stage).Contrary
are reachedin each
thefourstagesimplicitin the Buddhavamsa
lifetime
of Gotama'sbodhisattva
careerand notovera numberof
lifetimes.
53 - This pointis morefullydevelopedin chapterfourof my M.A.
Ideal in TheravadaBuddhism:WithSpecial
thesis,"Bodhisattva
of Colorado,1995). It
to the Stitra-Pitaka"
Reference
(University
containsthe
thatwhiletheBuddhavamsa
maybe argued,however,
centraldoctrinesassociatedwiththe bodhisattva
ideal, thistext
schoolsof
was heavilyinfluenced
by certainMahayanaBuddhist
is
asserted
this
idea
sometimes
While
(E. J.Thomas,The
thought.
of BuddhistThought
[London:Routledgeand KeganPaul,
History
Infact,theoppo1953],pp. 147-148), ithas notbeen confirmed.
site assertionmayalso be made. This maybe supportedby the
datingof texts.Forexample,thoughthe Buddhavamsais a relativelylateadditionto thePalicanon,accordingto certainscholars
"TheSignificance
ofFormer
Buddhas,"p. 68, and
(e.g.,Gombrich,
A. K. Warder,IndianBuddhism
[Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass,
19911,
the
third
to
the
second
be
from
this
text
dated
century
may
p. 298),
date is also supported
B.C.E.Thisapproximate
bythefactthatthere
is a parallelversionofthistextin theMahivastu,whichhas been
of Indian
B.C.E.(EtienneLamotte,
datedto thefirst
History
century
FromtheOriginstotheSaka Era,trans.SaraWebb-Boin
Buddhism:
Orientaliste
de Louvain,1988], p. 158). Hence,
[Paris:L'Institute
theBuddhavamsa
mayactuallyprecedetheearliestMahayanatext,
the Ratnagunasamcayagithi
(whichhas been datedby Conze to
the firstcenturyB.C.E.),by at least one hundredyears.
dans le Theravadaet le
54 - Walpola Rahula,"L'ideal du bodhisattva
Asiatique,1971,p. 69.
Mahayana,"Journal
in
theCanonicalLiterature
55 - K. R. Norman,PaliLiterature:
Including
A
of
of
All
the
Schools
and Sanskrit
Prakrit
Buddhism,
Hinayana
vol. 7, fasc.2 (Wiesbaden:OttoHarof IndianLiterature,
History
94.
1983),
rassowitz,
p.
56 - ReginaldRay, BuddhistSaints in India: A Studyof BuddhistValues
and Orientations(London: OxfordUniversity
Press,1994), p. 251.
Samuels
Jeffrey
415
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