Download The Sociological Perspective

The Sociological Perspective
Sociological Perspective
• Peter Berger: “seeing the general in the particular”
– possible to identify general patterns in the behavior of particular people
• C. Wright Mills: “sociological imagination”
– understand the connection between “history” and “biography”
– awareness of the relationship between private experience and (external influences in the) wider
society
• our experiences in group interactions influence our perceptions of social
reality and our reaction to it (social behavior)
Benefits of the Sociological Perspective
• helps us assess the truth of “common sense” assumptions
• prompts us to assess both the opportunities and constraints that characterize our
lives
• empowers us to participate actively in our society
• helps us recognize human variety and confront the challenges of living in
a diverse world
Importance of a Global Perspective
• societies are increasingly interconnected
• many problems we face are more serious elsewhere
• thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves
Development of Sociology
• origins in Europe during mid-1800s
– Industrial Revolution (urbanization, rapid social change)
– colonization
– success of natural sciences (positivism)
• expansion in America at the turn of the century
– immigration
– emphasis on social reform
• applied sociology
– public policy
– evaluation research
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Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
• sociology is a multiple paradigm science
– a paradigm is a perspective or basic image of society that guides thinking and research
• functional perspective (focuses on macro level)
– sees society as complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability;
maintain equilibrium
• conflict perspective (focuses on macro level)
– sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change; groups competing for
scarce resources
• symbolic interaction perspective (micro level)
– sees society as product of the everyday interactions between individuals; how people use
symbols to develop and share views of the world
Sociological Investigation
How do we “know” what is “truth”?
• ways of knowing or “kinds of truth”
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faith
wisdom of experts
general agreement among people
empirical evidence (information we can verify with our senses)
• Science is a logical system based on direct, systematic observations.
Research Model
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selecting a topic
defining the problem
reviewing the literature
formulating a hypothesis
choosing a research method
collecting the data
analyzing the data
drawing conclusions
sharing the results
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Research Methods
• Henslin (text)
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surveys
participant observation
secondary analysis
documents
unobtrusive measures
experiments
• another method of categorization
– experiments
• laboratory
• field
– surveys
• interviews
• questionnaires
– observational studies
• participant
• detached
– secondary analysis
• govt. statistics
• previous research data
Important Concepts in Research
• variable: a concept whose value changes from case to case
• measurement: the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case
– operational definitions of variables specify exactly what will be measured in assigning a value to
a variable
– reliability: consistency in measurement
– validity: measuring precisely what one intends to measure
• relationships among variables
– cause & effect: change in one variable causes change in another (independent, dependent)
– correlation: two or more variables change together
– controlling for intervening variables
• population: people who are the focus of the research (target group you wish to study)
• sample: part of the population that represents the whole
– random sample, stratified random sample
• questionnaire: series of written questions that a researcher presents to subjects
– closed-ended, open-ended
• interview: series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
– rapport
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Research Ethics
• use of data
– openness
– honesty
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no invasion of privacy
informed consent
no harm to participants
avoid deception
Interplay of Theory and Research
• Theory and research are interdependent.
– Inductive reasoning transforms specific observations into general theory.
• Theory is used to interpret research data and research data is used to generate theory .
– Deductive reasoning transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific
research.
• Theory generates questions which need to be answered.
Objectivity vs. Subjectivity
• These concepts are best understood as points on a continuum, not mutually
exclusive categories.
• Sociologists minimize bias and personal value judgments in the collection and
analysis of data by:
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adhering to the scientific method
openly stating their perspective (and sources of research funding)
reliance on replication or repetition of research by others
A.S.A. code of ethics
critical review by peers
Limitations of Sociological Research
• Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any
individual’s actions.
• Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher
may affect the behavior being studied.
– Hawthorne effect
• Social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold
true in another.
• Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value free when
conducting social research is difficult.
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