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73 No.2 FREDERICK DOUGLASS AND ABRAHAM LINCOLN ON BLACK EQUITY IN THE CIVIL WAR: A HISTORICAL-RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVE By Katherine Scott Sturdevant and Stephen Collins There are traditional approaches by which students can learn about the issues of slavery and Black troops in the Civil War or the personages of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln. Pitfalls can occur, however, if we do not delve deeper into specific actions, primary sources, and rhetoric, such as our “revisionist” tendency to condemn Lincoln as “not really freeing any slaves” with the Emancipation Proclamation. Abolitionist Frederick Douglass was Lincoln’s outspoken critic until the Emancipation Proclamation, but then understood that Lincoln’s efforts were calculated and prudent within the political and social context of the times. Another pitfall would be to assume that these two men were friends in common cause all along. In reality, Douglass and Lincoln met only three times, with the first meeting on August 10, 1863, more than 28 months into the Civil War and eight months after the Emancipation Proclamation. Yet, they developed parallel and complementary goals and strategies to end slavery, to enable Black men to serve in the Union army, and to protect Black servicemen’s rights and lives. At their second meeting a year later, on August 25, 1864, Lincoln asked Douglass to undertake covert efforts to free slaves if Lincoln lost reelection. Their third and final meeting was as friends, at the reception after Lincoln’s second inauguration, on March 4, 1865, just six weeks before Lincoln’s assassination. Before the Emancipation Proclamation and before these two great men met, their relationship was a remote one: Lincoln campaigned for office or made presidential policy statements while Douglass at times critiqued both with biting rhetoric. Meanwhile, Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas falsely insinuated that the two men were intimate friends, co-conspirators against slavery, and in favor of racial mixing. Lincoln’s positions against slavery and for equality grew as his understanding of these issues grew. In the words of Henry Louis Gates, “We can do Lincoln no greater service than to walk that path with him, and we can do him no greater disservice than to whitewash it, seeking to give ourselves an odd form of comfort by pretending that he was even one whit less complicated than he actually was.”1 When evaluating Lincoln’s moral growth in all its complexity, we must view that growth in relation to Frederick Douglass’s moral appeals to him. 8 | BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN VOL. 72, NO.2 8 BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 Lincoln gained national attention in 1858 for his position that the federal government had the right to regulate slavery in federal territorial lands. Lincoln’s position in his First Inaugural Address on March 4, 1861, however, was pro-union and not specifically anti-slavery: “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so….” Although Lincoln’s pace toward abolition was too slow for Frederick Douglass, his anti-slavery plan was discernable as early as 1861-62. He asked Congress to pass a law that defined confiscated slaves as contraband and thus free individuals. He suppressed the international slave trade and tried to persuade the border states to emancipate. He made it clear that he viewed federal emancipation as the president’s edict (not that of a general), and he accepted the use of Black troops as noncombatants. He also planned an emancipation proclamation, announcing it preliminarily, but waiting for a Union victory. Lincoln took the steps that he could take, politically, all in the same anti-slavery direction, while maintaining border state and Union support. Before the Emancipation Proclamation, Douglass was critical of Lincoln. He was deeply disappointed in Lincoln’s First Inaugural Address. The articulate former slave and abolitionist had hoped that the Republican Party and its candidate would carry the anti-slavery banner consistently. His doubts fluctuated with their rhetoric. 73 Douglass delivered all of his most significant arguments regarding emancipation and the use of black troops before he ever met Lincoln—before the Emancipation Proclamation. When the two men first met in August 1863, Lincoln took umbrage at Douglass’s criticism of a New York City speech he had given a year and a half earlier. Douglass had stated (in February 1862), “If I were asked to describe the most painful and mortifying feature…in the prosecution and management of the present war... I should point to the vacillation, doubt, uncertainty and hesitation, which have thus far distinguished dealing with the vital cause of the rebellion.”2 According to Douglass, Lincoln took exception to this earlier criticism and said that, although he (Lincoln) might be slow to make a decision, “I think it cannot be shown that when I have once taken a position, I have ever retreated from it.”3 Douglass’s patience vacillated until the Emancipation Proclamation. On March 25, 1862, Douglass said he could “see where the President’s heart is. I see...a brave man trying against great odds, to do right.... He is tall and strong but he is not done growing, he grows as the nation grows.... He has dared to say that the highest interest of the country will be promoted by the abolition of slavery.”4 By the summer of 1862, however, as the war intensified and the fates of so many hung in the balance, Douglass declared, “We have a right to hold Abraham Lincoln sternly responsible for any disaster or failure attending the suppression of this rebellion.”5 The Emancipation Proclamation was not then considered a weak document, as some see it today. Lincoln was an astute politician who knew that policy must be timed by anticipated public perceptions; if he, his administration, the war, or the Union failed, his work would be for naught. After Antietam (September 17, 1862), the bloodiest battle of the Civil War and declared a Union victory, Lincoln announced that the Emancipation Proclamation would take effect January 1, 1863. Modern critics note that the Proclamation only freed slaves in rebelling territories, sheltering border state slave owners and not freeing Southern slaves until Union troops arrived. Yet Frederick Douglass understood that Lincoln needed border state loyalty and that the Proclamation was the long-sought-after turning point. The Proclamation restored Frederick Douglass’s faith, and he called for Black men to serve in combat. On January 26, 1863, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton authorized creation of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, an all-Black experimental unit. Abolitionist Robert Gould Shaw led the 54th, and two of Frederick Douglass’s sons, Charles and Lewis, joined it. Douglass carried Lincoln’s call in his Douglass Monthly on March 2 by publishing “Men of Color to Arms.” His criticism of Lincoln virtually disappeared, and he traveled as the Union’s chief recruiter of Black troops. In July 1863, when Lincoln heard that Confederates were re-enslaving or executing Black Union troops whom they captured, he signed the Order of Retaliation: “[F]or every soldier of the United States killed in violation of the laws of war, a rebel soldier shall be executed; and for every one enslaved by the enemy or sold into slavery, a rebel soldier shall be placed at hard labor on the public works…until the other shall be released.” He also wrote to General U.S. Grant, urging him to rely on Black troops still more. Thus, when Douglass and Lincoln met for the first time, on August 10, 1863, the two men were like-minded. Frederick Douglass wrote many times about his remarkable meetings with Abraham Lincoln.6 At a time when equal treatment was rare, Lincoln welcomed Douglass with respect, warmth, and honesty. He explained at length the political reasons for gradual and strategic movement toward abolition and equal treatment of Black troops. Douglass remained an advocate for greater equity at greater speed, but he did so without undermining the president ever again. As the 1864 election approached, Lincoln called upon Douglass for special, secret support. With good reason; he feared that, were he not re-elected, the war might end without complete emancipation of the slaves or many of them might die at the hands of Southern whites. On August 25, 1864, in their second meeting, Lincoln asked Douglass to serve as a secret agent, to travel and make contacts that would cause as many slaves as possible to flee the South before it was too late. A few days later, Douglass wrote to the president about his progress with the secret plan. He also asked Lincoln to discharge his son, Charles Douglass, from military service due to illness, which Lincoln did. The men who had once been strangers at odds were now allies who trusted and helped one another. Sherman’s marches and Lincoln’s re-election on November 8, 1864, made the covert operation seem unnecessary. After Lincoln’s re-election, events and opportunities moved fast. Frederick Douglass conveyed “What the Black Man Wants” in his speech of early 1865, given before and after Congress passed the 13th Amendment that formally outlawed slavery (ratified December 6, 1865). He was “for the ‘immediate, unconditional, and universal’ enfranchisement of the black man, in every State in the Union.” At the Hampton Roads Peace Conference with Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens on February 3, 1865, Lincoln’s stipulations included that all states rejoin the Union and recognize the emancipation of slaves. As much as he wanted to end the war, Lincoln was BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 9 No.2 73 No.2 adamant that emancipation was not negotiable. Frederick Douglass’s admiration for Lincoln reached new heights when he heard Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address on March 4, 1865. Douglass was in the crowd and attended the reception afterward, where they had their third and final meeting. Lincoln was anxious to hear Douglass’s opinion of the speech and very pleased that Douglass called it “a sacred effort.” Their warm handclasp Douglass would never forget. On April 9, Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox. On April 14, John Wilkes Booth shot Abraham Lincoln in Ford’s Theatre, and the next day, the president was dead. Starting on that day in Rochester, New York, and for decades to come (Douglass died in 1895), Douglass eulogized Abraham Lincoln as a great, but down-to-earth man, an astute moral and political leader, and the man who freed the slaves. It is difficult to imagine slavery’s successful demise or Black troops in the Union Army without these two men juxtaposed as they were. That juxtaposition, however, included Douglass’s understandable mistrust, disappointment, and public criticism of Lincoln, and Lincoln’s early expedient avoidance of Douglass. Abraham Lincoln might not have achieved the presidency and thus the power to end slavery had he been visibly linked with Frederick Douglass. Douglass, whose passionate agitation was essential as both a prod and a foil for the president’s ability to act, undoubtedly helped lay groundwork for Lincoln even when Lincoln’s inaction or words infuriated him. That Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln were allies upon the end of slavery is inspirational. 1862,” in Blassingame and McKivigan, 519. 5. Frederick Douglass, “The Slaveholders’ Rebellion: An Address Delivered in Himrod’s, New York, on 4 July 1862,” in Blassingame and McKivigan, 531. 6. See James Oakes, The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2007) for authoritative summaries of the meetings, or see The Frederick Douglass Papers (cited above) for the many descriptions that Oakes synthesized. Teacher Resources • 1. Glory (motion picture). Directed by Edward Zwick. TriStar Pictures, 1989. This 1989 Hollywood film about the 54th Massachusetts Regiment is rated “R,” so teachers may need to single out scenes to show. For activities with original documents, see the National Archives site: http://www.archives.gov/education/ lessons/blacks-civil-war/. • 2. A recent documentary, For Love of Liberty: The Story of America’s Black Patriots (2010) is a four-hour U.S. Army-sponsored compilation of Black war service across American history. Its summary of the Black troops in the Civil War is concise and useful. • 3. See also collections of letters from Black soldiers such as Corporal James Henry Gooding, On the Altar of Freedom: A Black Soldier’s Civil War Letters from the Front, ed. Virginia M. Adams (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991) and Edwin S. Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). • 4. On African Americans in Civil War military service, see Dudley Taylor Cornish, The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987); Joseph T. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000); James M. McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War: How American Blacks Felt and Acted During the War for the Union (New York: Vintage Books, 2003); and Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 1989). Notes 1. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., “Abraham Lincoln on Race and Slavery,” in Lincoln on Race and Slavery, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), lxiv. 2. Frederick Douglass, “The Black Man’s Future in the Southern States: An Address Delivered in Boston, Massachusetts, on 5 February, 1862,” in The Frederick Douglass Papers, Series One, Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, Vol. 3, 1855-1863, ed. John W. Blassingame and John R. McKivigan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 490. 3. Frederick Douglass, “Emancipation, Racism, and the Work Before Us: An Address Delivered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on 4 December 1863,” in Blassingame and McKivigan, 607. 4. Frederick Douglass, “The War and How to End It: An Address Delivered in Rochester, New York, on 25 March 10 | BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN VOL. 72, NO.2 10 BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 73 • 5. On the relationship and parallelism between Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln, see David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln: A Relationship in Language, Politics, and Memory, Frank L. Klement Lectures (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2001); David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass’ Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991); James Oakes, The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2007); and John Stauffer, Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln (New York: Twelve, 2008). • 6. For some of the latest scholarship on Lincoln, slavery, and rhetoric, see Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010); Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and Donald Yacovone, eds., Lincoln on Race and Slavery (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009); Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006); Harold Holzer, Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006); and Ronald C. White, Lincoln’s Greatest Speech: The Second Inaugural (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006). • No.2 Katherine Scott Sturdevant is a professor of history at Pikes Peak Community College in Colorado Springs, CO and a Ph.D. candidate in history (University of California, Santa Barbara). Email: [email protected]. Stephen Collins is a professor of communication at Pikes Peak Community College in Colorado Springs, CO and holds a Ph.D. in communication studies from Northwestern University, specializing in American historical rhetoric. Email: [email protected]. 7. For the original writings and speeches of Frederick Douglass, we used The Frederick Douglass Papers, Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, ed. John W. Blassingame and John R. McKivigan (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991). BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 11 73 No.2 The list of Lincoln policies: L1. (C) None. L2. (D) The Union Army will treat escaped or confiscated slaves as contraband property and will not return them to their owners. L3. (I) The Union will ask border states to emancipate slaves on their own. L4. (E) The Union will not allow its military generals to emancipate slaves in their own districts of their own accord. L5. (B) The Union will stop the international slave trade. L6. (L) The Union will use Black men as Union troops, but in noncombatant roles. L7. (F)The Union will emancipate all Confederate slaves in rebelling territories. L8. (A) The Union will use Black men as Union troops in combatant roles except as officers. L9. (K) When Confederates take Black Union troops as prisoners and kill or re-enslave them, the Union will retaliate by executing or imprisoning Confederate captives. L10. (G) The Union will emancipate all slaves, south or north, and declare slavery illegal. [Teacher note: This policy stance repeats in a second round.] L11. (H) The Union will allow Black soldiers to serve as officers. ** **There was no presidential authorization allowing Black soldiers to become officers during the Civil War, although 109 received commissions and over 7,000 Black noncommissioned officers served. The list of Douglass quotations: D1. (A) No significant statement or change in position D2. (C) “There can be no peace or unity in this country while slavery exists.” D3. (G) “I...urge all men, and especially the Government, to the abolition of slavery.” D4. (E) “We are striking the guilty rebels with our soft, white hand, when we should be striking with the iron hand of the black man, which we keep chained behind us.” D5. (F) “I hold that the Proclamation, good as it is, will be worthless—a miserable mockery—unless the nation shall so far conquer its prejudice as to welcome into the army full-grown black men to help fight the battles of the Republic.” D6. (H) “Nothing can be more plain, nothing more certain than that the speediest and best possible way open to us to manhood, equal rights and elevation, is that we enter this [military] service.” D7. (D) “I am for the ‘immediate, unconditional and universal’ enfranchisement of the black man, in every State of the Union.” D8. (B) “And when it is... asked, ‘What have you done?’ my answer will be, that the first soldiers who entered the long-beleaguered and long-desired city of Richmond, on the heels of the retreating rebels, were black soldiers.” Round 1 (March and April, 1861) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • March 1: AL delivers his 1st Inaugural Address. His speech disappoints FD because it does not take a strong anti-slavery stand. • April 12: Confederate firing on Ft. Sumter begins Civil War; FD sees war on slavery. Position taken by Lincoln: L1; Position taken by Douglass: D2 (April 28, 1861) 12 | BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN VOL. 72, NO.2 12 BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 73 No.2 Round 2 (June-July, 1861) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • April-July: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina secede from the Union. • April 22: Robert E. Lee becomes commander of the Virginia forces. • May 3: AL calls for three-year volunteers. Position taken by Lincoln: L2 (On July 4, AL asks Congress to pass a confiscation act defining slaves as contraband of war.); Position taken by Douglass: D3 (June 30, 1861) Round 3 (September, 1861) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • July 21: The first Battle of Bull Run/Manassas is a humiliating defeat for the Union. • August 30: Gen. John C. Fremont proclaims emancipation in Missouri. Position taken by Lincoln: L3 and L4 (AL pressures border states to liberate slaves and overrules Gen. Fremont’s proclamation freeing Missouri slaves on the grounds that it was the president’s responsibility to declare emancipation.) [Student teams get credit for answering either 3 or 4.]; Position taken by Douglass: D1 (FD gives no significant new speech but later, on January 14, 1862, denounces AL’s letter to Fremont as “weakness and imbecility.”) Round 4 (January-April 1862) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • January: Douglass Monthly complains that US had refused to make a treaty with Britain against the illegal Atlantic slave trade for 25 years. Position taken by Lincoln: L5 (On April 10, Lincoln sends British-US treaty against illegal Atlantic slave trade to Congress.); Position taken by Douglass: D4 (January 14, 1862) Round 5 (September, 1862) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • July 17: Congress passes the Militia Act authorizing Black troops as noncombatants. • September 17: The Battle of Antietam is declared a Union victory due to Lee’s retreat. Position taken by Lincoln: L6 & L7 (AL makes a preliminary announcement that he will emancipate slaves in the rebelling states, effective January 1, 1863.); Position taken by Douglass: D1 (No significant new speech is given during this period.) Round 6 (January-February, 1863) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • January 1, 1863: Emancipation Proclamation goes into effect, freeing all slaves in the rebelling states. Position taken by Lincoln: L8 (AL gives Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, permission to authorize on January 26, 1863 the creation of the all-Black 54th Massachusetts Regiment which includes two sons of Frederick Douglass, Charles and Lewis.); Position taken by Douglass: D5 (January 19 and February 6, 1863) BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 13 73 No.2 Round 7 (July, 1863) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • May 1: The Confederate Congress authorizes President Jefferson Davis to deal with Black regiments taken prisoner by executing their White officers and re-enslaving or killing their Black enlisted men. • May 27-July 9: Battle at Port Hudson, Louisiana, during the siege of Vicksburg demonstrates the valor of black troops. • June 4: The War Department announces that the Militia Act authorized $10 per month pay for Black troops rather than the $13 per month given to White troops. • July 13: New York City draft riots kill Black abolitionists. • July 16: During the 2nd Battle of Fort Wagner, SC (depicted in the movie Glory), half the men in the 54th Massachusetts Regiment are lost, including commanding officer Col. Shaw, and Lewis Douglass is wounded. Position taken by Lincoln: L9 (AL signs the Order of Retaliation on July 30.); Position taken by Douglass: D6 (July 6, 1863) Round 8 (January-February, 1865) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • April12: Black troops distinguish themselves but are massacred at Fort Pillow. • June 15: Congress authorizes equal pay for Black soldiers. • September 2: Sherman conquers Atlanta, next marches to the sea. • November 8: AL is re-elected. Position taken by Lincoln: L10 (Congress passes the 13th Amendment on January 31; AL signs it to go to the states for ratification on February 1.); Position taken by Douglass: D7 (January 26, 1865) Round 9 (March-April, 1865) Historical Events (to tell to the competing teams): • February 1: Sherman’s March through the Carolinas is underway. • February 3: AL holds Hampton Roads Peace Conference with Confederate VP Alexander Stephens to no avail. • March 4: AL’s Second Inauguration. FD was in the crowd and also attended the reception afterward, their third and final meeting. FD called the speech “a sacred effort.” Position taken by Lincoln: L10 repeats (On March 4, AL gives his Second Inaugural Address, indicating that slavery is dead and emancipation is definite.); Position taken by Douglass: D8 (April 4, 1865) Epilogue to the Game • April 9, 1865: Robert E. Lee surrenders to U.S. Grant at Appomattox. • April 14, 1865: John Wilkes Booth assassinates Abraham Lincoln. • April 15, 1865: Frederick Douglass gives the first of his many eulogies for Lincoln. • December 6, 1865: The states finally ratify the 13th Amendment. • April 14, 1876: Frederick Douglass dedicates the Freedmen’s Monument in Lincoln Park (Washington, D.C.). Although he comments that the kneeling figure of a Black man should have stood tall, he praises Lincoln as the man who freed the slaves. • February 20, 1895: Frederick Douglass dies. 14 | BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN VOL. 72, NO.2 14 BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 73 No.2 LESSON PLAN FREDERICK DOUGLASS AND ABRAHAM LINCOLN ON BLACK EQUITY IN THE CIVIL WAR: A HISTORICAL-RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVE By Katherine Scott Sturdevant and Stephen Collins Connections to High School Students will analyze how Abraham Lincoln’s cautious but effective policymaking interacted with Frederick Douglass’s vehement, farsighted advocacy to result in the emancipation of slaves and the employment and fair treatment of Black troops. They can do so by examining both men’s original rhetoric to discover how their sophisticated and influential commentary affected history. Goal of the Lesson Plan The goal of this lesson is to teach students the complexities of policymaking by elected officials and policy influencing by activist reformers. This is an exercise in critical thinking about historical decision-making. National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) Standards History Assist learners in utilizing chronological thinking so that they can distinguish between past, present, and future time; can place historical narratives in the proper chronological framework; can interpret data presented in time lines; and can compare alternative models for periodization. • Guide learners in practicing skills of historical analysis and interpretation, such as compare and contrast, differentiate between historical facts and interpretations, consider multiple perspectives, analyze cause and effect relationships, compare competing historical narratives, recognize the tentative nature of historical interpretations, and hypothesize the influence of the past. • Help learners to identify issues and problems in the past, recognize factors contributing to such problems, identify and analyze alternative courses of action, formulate a position or course of action, and evaluate the implementation of that decision. • Activity and Assessment The goal of this game is to determine what policies Lincoln advocated for during nine different periods of his administration and what statements Douglass made during those same time periods. 1. The instructor determines the number of teams and members. 2. Teachers should give a copy of the provided list of 11 policy stances of Lincoln and eight quotations by Douglass to all members of the student teams. 3. For each round, the teacher states the significant historical events provided. 4. The student teams then need to determine which Lincoln policy and which Douglass quotation fall within the period covered by that round. Each team submits its answer privately to the teacher (on slips of folded paper or through the use of clickers). 5. The teacher tallies the scores and announces each team’s score after each round. Teams receive one point for getting either the Lincoln policy or the Douglass quotation right for the round in question. Teams receive three points if they get both Lincoln’s policy and Douglass’s quotation correct for that round. Note: Although listed chronologically for the benefit of the teacher (L1-L11 and D1-D8 respectively), the policy and quotation lists given to students should be listed as A., B., C., etc. (as they appear to the right in the lists below) so that the students must figure out the correct sequences. 6. The student team that has the most points after all 10 rounds wins. BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN Vol. 73, No. 2 15