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PILOT EDITION DECEMBER 2013 DRAFT December 2013 Acknowledgements
Funding and in‐kind support was provided for the Speices at Risk Primer by the Real Estate Foundation of BC, Environment Canada Habitat Stewardship Program, and the Agricultural Environment Initative of the Agriculture Investment Foundation of BC. The project was overseen by an Advisory Committee whose purpose was to foster shared environmental stewardship through a positive working relationship between the Stewardship Centre for BC and other organizations interested in species at risk stewardship through assistance with quality assurance, relevancy, consistency with other SAR guidance/initiatives, collaboration, and promotion and outreach to key audiences. A huge thank you is extended to organizations on the project Advisory Committee for their contribution to the project: BC Cattleman’s Association, South Coast Conservation Program, BC Ministry of Environment, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, BC Dairy Association, BC Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ecological Services Initiative. Thanks also to reviewers from the BC Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, GC Group, BC Ministry of Forest, Lands, and Natural Resources Operations, Alley Cats Alliance, Okanagan Similkameen Conservation Alliance, and BC Nature. This report was written by Mike Pearson, PhD, RPBio; and DG Blair, M.Sc. The report was produced by the Stewardship Centre for British Columbia, 2013 © This document does not necessarily represent the views of all individual members of the advisory committee, or the official positions of the organizations with which the individual committee members are associated. 2 DRAFT December 2013 TheStewardshipCentreforBC
The Stewardship Centre for BC (SCBC) was created to assist governments, businesses, conservation and environmental organizations, and citizens carry out stewardship activities in the most efficient, effective, and rewarding ways. A leader in promoting stewardship values as the foundation for sustainability, the SCBC wants to help make “shared stewardship” – the voluntary adoption of environmentally sustainable practices by all sectors of society – a reality in British Columbia. We are committed to champion science‐based best stewardship so that British Columbians understand, enjoy, and sustain healthy ecosystems through stewardship. As good stewardship relies on good decision‐ making, we work closely with our partners to develop innovative technical, educational, and capacity building resources. For more information about the Stewardship Centre, go to www.stewardshipcentrebc.ca. Disclaimer © Mike Pearson The Stewardship Centre for BC provides the information in this guide and its website for educational purposes only. Material contained within it carries no guarantee of any kind, express or implied. SCBC does not endorse, recommend or control linked websites and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for their contents or views. The Stewardship Centre for BC accepts no liability or blame for damages to any person or business entity because of using this website, its information or any website linked to it. This guide is meant to complement but not replace other existing resources, including the BC Ministry of Environment’s Develop with Care series and Best Management Practices (BMPs) that have been developed for individual species. Following the guide also does not replace the need for due diligence regarding the legislative and regulatory requirements for projects involving species at risk. 3 DRAFT December 2013 Preface
This Stewardship Practices guide for species at risk and other wildlife affected by cat predation presents options and examples of good stewardship practices to reduce impacts by domestic and feral cats. The guide describes different activities that cat owners, community organizations, and local governments can undertake to help reduce cat predation, conserve wildlife and their habitat, and also provides links to resources to take action. This guide is one of a series of guides developed by the Stewardship Centre to address threats to wildlife and species at risk. Other guides in this series include: 
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Species at Risk Voluntary Stewardship Practices for: Riparian Areas in Settled Landscapes Species at Risk Voluntary Stewardship Practices for: Guidance for Restoration Activities in Riparian Areas Species at Risk Voluntary Stewardship Practices for: Drainage Maintenance in Agricultural Waterways Species at Risk Voluntary Stewardship Practices for: Climbing Species at Risk Voluntary Stewardship Practices for: Reducing Small Animal Road‐kill. AboutthisDocument
This guide was designed to provide:  Cat owners with information they can use to inform their actions to conserve wildlife and species at risk from the impacts of cat predation  Information for local governments to use in developing mechanisms to help protect wildlife and species at risk from the impacts of cat predation  Information for conservation and stewardship organizations that can facilitate their work. This guide encourages people to take voluntary stewardship actions, called stewardship practices, to safeguard wildlife and species at risk. Stewardship can be broadly defined as an ethic that promotes the responsible use, protection, and management of the natural environment through conservation and sustainable best practices. This guide describes stewardship practices for wildlife and species at risk that addresses the threat of predation by domestic and feral cats. Following an overview of this threat, various actions are described to reduce the impacts of cat predation. To help implement these stewardship practices additional information resources are provided at the end of the guide. 4 DRAFT December 2013 TableofContents
The Stewardship Centre for BC 3 Preface 4 About this Document 4 The Current Situation 6 Which species are most vulnerable and why? 10 Stewardship Practices 12 Stewardship Practices for Pet Owners 12 Stewardship Practices for Municipalities 15 Web Resources 17 Species at Risk Potentially Impacted by Cat Predation 18 Bibliography 21 5 DRAFT December 2013 TheCurrentSituation
OverviewofCatPredation
The house cat was originally domesticated from the European/African wildcat (Felis silvestris), probably to control rats with the rise of agriculture. Although it has become one of the world’s most common pets, its predatory instincts are very much intact and feral (non‐pet) cat populations are established in most areas near human settlement. There are about 8.5 million pet cats and between 1.4 and 4.2 million feral cats in Canada. Slightly more than one in three Canadian households keeps cats. In total, these cats are estimated to kill roughly 269 million birds and destroy 2 million bird nests in Canada every year. Most human‐
related bird deaths (about 99%) are caused by impacts of feral and pet cats. Bird species that nest or feed on or near the ground are especially vulnerable to cat predation. These numbers dwarf the next largest killer, collisions with buildings and vehicles. Impacts are highest in densely settled areas in BC like the Fraser Valley, the South Okanagan, and Southern Vancouver Island. Wikepedia Commons These estimates are consistent with those made for other regions. Cat predation is the largest single source of human‐caused mortality for birds and mammals in North America: an estimated 1.4‐ 3.7 billion birds and 6.9‐20.7 billion small mammals in the United States annually. Similarly, an estimated 27 million birds are killed each spring and summer by cats in Great Britain. Cats have caused the extinction of native species on numerous islands around the world and evidence is accumulating that cat predation is causing declines in global bird populations. Recent studies support a precautionary approach to manage this situation, where best management practices like those described in this guide will help minimize bird mortality. © Mark Marek
6 DRAFT December 2013 Although the domestic cat was introduced in North America only a few hundred years ago, their dramatic rise in population numbers during this time has been devastating to native wildlife. Virtually all cats kill if given the opportunity, although some kill much more than others and individual cats vary in the types of prey they target. Being fed by humans has little or no impact on kill rates. Younger cats (1‐2 yrs) typically catch more prey. Most cat owners have little idea of the extent of the problem, in part because only a small proportion, less than 25%, of kills are brought home. © Jennifer Barnard/Wikepedia Commons
© US Fish & Wildlife Predator Stress or fear of cats also impacts native wildlife. Parent birds reduced food delivered to nestlings by more than one third for more than 90 minutes after seeing a (model) cat. This is likely to reduce survival rates of the young, and even slight declines in the number of surviving offspring can produce severe population declines over time. Cats also may compete for prey with natural predators, depressing their populations. 7 DRAFT December 2013 Since 2009, cats have been labelled as an invasive species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, placing cats in the same conservation‐threat category as rats. This marks a significant turning point as to how cats, both domestic and feral, are viewed regarding native wildlife populations. TypesofCats
There are two types of cats that kill wildlife: free‐range and feral. They differ in their habitat use and predatory behaviour and consequently different stewardship practices are required to mitigate their impacts. FreeRangeCats
Free range domestic cats have access to food supplied by humans, but are not entirely confined to indoors. Reported predation rates of free range cats vary from 14 prey items per year to 70‐100 per year. These numbers are serious underestimates, as they only include prey brought to human residences or found by researchers. A recent study that equipped cats with collar‐
mounted cameras found that less that 25% of kills were brought home. © Remi Jouan
Studies of domestic cats tell us that less than 25% of kills are brought home Urban/suburban cats hunt primarily in neighbouring properties and sometimes in nearby natural areas, rarely going more than 10 m into forested areas. There are many more urban cats in a smaller area ‐ often over 300 cats per square kilometre – than in rural areas. These urban cats, if free ranging, can have a tremendous impact on wildlife in their neighbourhoods. The impacts of these cats are greater when natural areas, such as parks and protected areas are smaller, as larger areas may support coyotes or other larger predators that reduce cat numbers and movements. Rural cats generally kill a broader range of species and have a larger impact on wildlife mortality per cat than urban/suburban cats. They also typically range much further. © Mike Pearson
Urban cats bring home about the same number of prey items as cats who live on the urban fringe near forested areas
© Mike Pearson 8 DRAFT December 2013 FeralCats
Feral cats typically avoid humans and domestic food sources and reproduce without human involvement. Feral cats may live in either rural or urban areas. Major Canadian cities, for example, are reported to contain somewhere between 20,000 and 200,000 feral cats. Feral cat populations seem to be larger in areas where there are low‐income and/or transient human populations. About 25% of Canadian cats are feral. Feral cat home ranges are much larger and they are believed to kill many more birds than domestic free range cats and they can take larger prey– up to their own body weight. Feral cats are also known to carry diseases that may be passed to both domestic pet cats and to humans. Livestock farms tend to have more feral cats than other farms or rural residences as they are commonly used for rodent or pigeon control. W: user:Stavrolo
Both domestic and feral cats are opportunistic predators and will take whatever suitably sized prey is available to them. Cats may take prey as large as mallard ducks, and rabbits. In natural systems, when prey populations decline, predator numbers typically follow, relieving predation pressure. Domestic cats, however, are freed from this relationship by the food supplied by humans and their population trajectories typically follow that of humans. Cat densities in rural areas may exceed densities of native predators by several‐fold. Species at risk, like the Yellow‐
breasted Chat, are especially vulnerable because cat predation rates do not decline as prey species become rare 9 DRAFT December 2013 Whichspeciesaremostvulnerableandwhy?
SmallMammals
Small mammals are the most common prey of cats. In Canada, hundreds of millions, most of them native species, are killed annually by cats. Shrews, voles and mice are most likely to be impacted because of their small size and likelihood of being found around farms and urbanizing areas. © Walter Siegmund
Although the Snowshoe Hare might seem too large to be vulnerable, cats can kill animals up to their own body weight in size Songbirds
After small mammals, songbirds are the next most common prey. Bird predation is highest in spring and summer when nestlings and fledglings are abundant. A lesser peak occurs in mid‐winter, when small mammal prey is less available. The number of birds killed by cats annually in urban areas is often greater than the number of young hatched and often up to 40% of the total population in the area. With such high death rates these areas reduce rather than contribute to regional bird populations. Urban cats tend to catch a higher proportion of birds than rural cats do. Species that nest on or near the ground are most vulnerable, as are birds found near residential neighbourhoods or farms or at bird feeders. Interior forest and wetland species are less vulnerable, even those that nest on the ground, as cats rarely venture far into these habitats. In some areas of the world, island‐nesting seabirds have been devastated by feral cats. This has not, thus far, been a problem in BC, probably because cats cannot survive the winters where most of these seabirds nest. It could become a problem on some southern islands in the future though. USFWS © Mike Pearson
© The Band‐tailed Pigeon (left) and the Barn Swallow (right) are susceptible to cat predation. 10 DRAFT December 2013 British Columbia has a critical conservation and stewardship responsibility for birds – with over 300 species that breed in BC each year – more than any other province in Canada. BC is also is host to many migratory birds that arrive in our communities over the course of the year. These birds all depend on the availability of food and suitable habitat to maintain their population numbers. Some BC Birds impacted by cat predation:
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Common songbirds, such as the Stellars Jay and House Wren and long‐distance migrants such as Lazuli Bunting and Yellow Warbler. Rare and Threatened species, such as the Ruby‐throated Hummingbird, Lewis's Woodpecker, and Pine Grosbeak Birds that nest or feed on the ground, such as the California Quail. ReptilesandAmphibians
Reptiles and amphibians are reported as prey in almost all studies of free range and feral cats. They are rarely brought home by free‐range cats and are likely more commonly killed than most owners or researchers realize. © Kristina Ovaska
USFWS © . The Sharp‐tailed Snake (left) and the Red legged Frog (right) are both small, land dwelling species found near urban and suburban areas and consequently vulnerable to cat predation. 11 DRAFT December 2013 StewardshipPractices
Following are various actions, called Stewardship Practices that help to conserve, enhance, and restore species at risk and wildlife habitat that is impacted by cat predation. It must be kept in mind that limiting the impacts of feral and free‐range domestic cats requires different stewardship practices. Free range cat control is best approached by educating and regulating cat owners, while addressing feral cat problems is achievable through population control measures and reducing food availability. StewardshipPracticesforPetOwners
Keepdomesticcatsindoorsoronleashes
Pet owners can prevent the deaths of many birds and mammals and their cat will likely live much longer by keeping the pet indoors. This is the most effective stewardship practice to limit the impact of cat predation on wildlife and species at risk. Cats live an average of 15‐17 years when kept inside, but just 4‐5 when allowed to free range. Keeping the cat indoors during the day, but allowing it to range at night, may reduce overall predation, but is very limited in effectiveness as the critical times when birds are active are dawn and dusk and pet owners would have to get their cat back inside before the sun comes up. To provide outdoor access to pets, installation of a cat run or confining the animal to the yard is an effective practice. Another option is to supervise or leash cats when they are outside. Excellent advice on keeping cats happy indoors can be found on the American Bird Conservancy website www.abcbirds.org © Mike Pearson
Wikimedia Commons Cat owners should keep their cats indoors or on a leash when outdoors. There are a number of ways that people can help their cats adjust to an indoor lifestyle – see Resources at the end of this guide. 12 DRAFT December 2013 Neutercats
Cats can breed at just 4 to 12 months of age and then produce an average of two litters of four kittens annually. Neutering cats is the best way to control their numbers. Neutered animals also range over smaller areas. There are about 8.5 million pet cats in Canada. Allowing pets to breed is unnecessary and contributes to the problem of cat predation on vulnerable wildlife © Artur Andrzej Reducehuntingsuccesswithbells,whistlesandbibs
Attaching warning bells to collars works to some extent, but is ineffective when cats hunt by waiting quietly to pounce on prey that venture too close – as they often do. Collar mounted bells and electronic sound devices reduced predation success by one‐third to one half in some studies, but other studies have found no impact. Bibs reduce predation success by making cats more visible to prey and by interfering with front legs when the cat pounces on prey. They are typically attached to collars and made of coloured neoprene. They are highly effective at reducing predation. A controlled study showed that the bibs stopped over 80% of cats from catching birds, 33% from catching amphibians and reptiles, and 45% from catching mammals. The bibs did not interfere with fighting or wandering behaviours. A patented version can be ordered on‐line www.catgoods.com. To be effective, these devices should only be used outdoors under supervision by the pet owner. However, none of these methods is as effective at protecting wildlife as simply keeping cats indoors. Keepcatsawayfromnestsandfeeders
Keep cats out of bird feeding areas using fencing – being especially aware to keep out all cats ‐ even neighbouring cats. If cats do have access to the bird feeding areas, place feeders on high poles away from areas where cats have cover to stalk. Avoid providing bird seed on the ground. Do not employ 13 DRAFT December 2013 ultra‐sonic cat deterrent devices. Their effectiveness is questionable and the impacts on native species are uncertain. If it is not possible to keep cats away from bird feeders, then do not put bird feeders out. FeralCats
Neverabandoncats
Unfortunately, people regularly abandon cats in parks or rural areas. This is extremely cruel as many do not survive, and those that do survive lead short, unhealthy lives. They also establish feral cat colonies that wreak havoc on native wildlife populations. Unwanted cats should be dropped off at a local animal shelter to give them the best possible chance to be adopted into suitable homes. Don’tfeedstrays
Many kind‐hearted people feed stray cats in the misguided belief they are helping. In fact, it only increases feral population, reducing their resources and increasing disease. Pet and barn cats should be fed indoors to avoid inadvertently feeding feral animal. Outdoor feeding also attracts rats and other unwanted wildlife. Feeding feral cats increases their numbers without improving their health. Wikimedia Commons Keeponlyneuteredfemalebarncats
Cats are used on farms, especially livestock operations, to control rodent populations. Farmers can reduce their impact by keeping only enough cats to control the rodents. Well‐fed neutered females are best, as they will hunt close to farm buildings where rodent control is required. 14 DRAFT December 2013 StewardshipPracticesforMunicipalities
InitiateaPublicEducationProgram
Local governments have jurisdiction to implement a number of types of controls on cats, but none are likely to be effective or politically possible in the absence of public education efforts. Public attitudes towards control measures typically vary with pet ownership. Non–cat owners are more likely to recognize that cats may pose a threat to wildlife in urban and suburban areas and are more likely to favour compulsory control of cat movement. Finding and working with cat owners who do support strict controls, however, can be very effective in educating others and increasing public acceptance of these measures. Other potential partners include animal shelters, local veterinarians, and nature clubs. Free educational materials can be downloaded from the American Bird Conservancy website at www.abcbirds.org Requirecatlicenses
Municipalities in British Columbia can require that cats be licensed, neutered and/or vaccinated with permits for exceptions such as licensed breeders or animals too old or medically unfit to be neutered safely. Microchips or tags can be used to positively identify animals, reducing the number of lost pets that are sent to shelters or euthanized. A licensing program can also be used to limiting the number of cats per household and to allow the return of lost pets to owners. A BC model bylaw has been developed by the BC SPCA – see Resources section as the end of this guide to find out more. Supportspay‐neuterclinics
Free or subsidized spay‐neuter clinics are one of the most effective means of reducing cat populations. Local governments can encourage local organizations and veterinarians to hold regular spay‐neuter clinics for low‐income cat owners through funding, advertising or other help. Reduced license fees for neutered cats can be used as an incentive. Banfreerangecats
Most municipalities ban free‐ranging dogs. A number of municipalities in Ontario, including Hamilton, Oakville, and Milton have recently applied similar bans to cats. A lesser restriction could involve cat exclusion zones in residential zones near wildlife areas. These have been used successfully in Australia. Bans should be accompanied by a website or other educational material describing how to keep cats content indoors and on types of outdoor enclosures that keep cats happy and wildlife safe. 15 DRAFT December 2013 Trapferalcats
Trap/neuter/release programs have been used for feral cat populations; sometimes combined with distemper and rabies vaccinations. However, these programs are not recommended, as they do little to reduce cat predation on native species and rarely even stabilize populations as 90% or more of the population must be treated. Eliminating feral populations by this method is not possible, as immigration is constant. A brochure from the American Bird Conservancy on the challenges with of the trap, neuter, release approach and why it is not effective at addressing bird mortality can be Wikimedia Commons found at www.abcbirds.org/abcprograms/policy/cats/materi
als/TNR_brochure.pdf More effective programs consist of trapping and removing animals from the population. This can be done in cooperation with an animal shelter, however, it is rarely possible to domesticate a feral cat, and euthanasia is often the only effective option. The Municipality of Creston has instituted such a program. The City of Edmonton has a free program to lend live traps to homeowners who then bring the animals to an animal control centre where they are held for adoption or euthanized if too sick or wild. Banoutdoorfeeding
A number of municipalities have instituted outdoor feeding bans. To be effective, such bans must be supported by strong public education efforts. Incentives such as coupons to reduce food or other pet supply costs have also been found to increase compliance with such a bylaw. 16 DRAFT December 2013 WebResources
American Bird Conservancy Information and educational resources on the impacts of cat predation and on how to transform your outdoor cat into a content indoor cat. ABC also produced many good public educational brochures which are available to order. Municipalities could order these materials to use as public awareness tools. See http://www.abcbirds.org/abcprograms/policy/cats/index.html Cornell Lab of Ornithology An excellent short essay on the impacts of cats on bird populations. http://www.allaboutbirds.org/Page.aspx?pid=2656 BC SPCA http://www.spca.bc.ca/ http://www.spca.bc.ca/welfare/professional‐resources/model‐bylaw.html Rithets Bog Conservation Society Videos of domestic cat predation on songbirds in a Victoria Conservation Area http://www.rithetsbog.org/ Cat Bib Information http://catgoods.com/ 17 DRAFT December 2013 SpeciesatRiskPotentiallyImpactedbyCatPredation
English Name Scientific Name
BC List
COSEWIC
SARA Schedule Blotched Tiger Salamander Ambystoma mavortium Red E 1 Western Toad Wandering Salamander Anaxyrus boreas Blue S 1 Aneides vagrans Blue Coastal Tailed Frog Ascaphus truei Blue S 1 Coastal Giant Salamander Dicamptodon tenebrosus Red T 1 Northern Leopard Frog Lithobates pipiens Red E 1 Northern Red‐legged Frog Rana aurora Blue S 1 Great Basin Spadefoot Spea intermontana Blue T 1 North American Racer Coluber constrictor Blue S 1 Sharp‐tailed Snake Contia tenuis Red E 1 Desert Nightsnake Hypsiglena chlorophaea Red E 1 Gopher Snake deserticola subspecies Pituophis catenifer deserticola Blue T 1 Western Skink Plestiodon skiltonianus Blue S 1 Northern Rubber Boa Charina bottae Yellow S 1 Mountain Beaver rainieri subspecies Aplodontia rufa rainieri Blue S 1 Mountain Beaver rufa subspecies Aplodontia rufa rufa Blue S 1 Snowshoe Hare washingtonii subspecies Lepus americanus washingtonii Red White‐tailed Jackrabbit Lepus townsendii Red Southern Red‐backed Vole occidentalis subspecies Myodes gapperi occidentalis Red Great Basin Pocket Mouse Perognathus parvus Red Western Harvest Mouse Reithrodontomys megalotis Blue S 1 Pacific Water Shrew Sorex bendirii Red E 1 Merriam's Shrew Sorex merriami Red American Water Shrew brooksi subspecies Sorex palustris brooksi Red Amphibians Reptiles Small Mammals Preble's Shrew Sorex preblei Red Olympic Shrew Sorex rohweri Red Trowbridge's Shrew Sorex trowbridgii Blue Nuttall's Cottontail Sylvilagus nuttallii Blue S 1 Northern Bog Lemming artemisiae subspecies Synaptomys borealis artemisiae Blue 18 DRAFT December 2013 Northern Pocket Gopher segregatus subspecies Thomomys talpoides segregatus Red Le Conte's Sparrow Ammodramus leconteii Blue Grasshopper Sparrow Ammodramus savannarum Red Ruby‐throated Hummingbird Archilochus colubris Blue Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda Red Smith's Longspur Calcarius pictus Blue Canada Warbler Cardellina canadensis Blue T 1 Canyon Wren Catherpes mexicanus Blue N Lark Sparrow Chondestes grammacus Red Yellow‐billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus Red Olive‐sided Flycatcher Contopus cooperi Blue T 1 Yellow Rail Coturnicops noveboracensis Red S 1 Sooty Grouse Dendragapus fuliginosus Blue Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus Blue T Gray Flycatcher Empidonax wrightii Blue N Horned Lark, merrilli subspecies Horned Lark, strigata subspecies Rusty Blackbird Eremophila alpestris merrilli Blue Eremophila alpestris strigata Red E 1 Euphagus carolinus Blue S 1 Northern Pygmy‐Owl, swarthi subspecies Glaucidium gnoma swarthi Blue Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Blue T Yellow‐breasted Chat Icteria virens Red E 1 Short‐billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus Blue Western Screech‐Owl, kennicottii subspecies Megascops kennicottii kennicottii Blue T 1 Western Screech‐Owl, macfarlanei subspecies Megascops kennicottii macfarlanei Red T 1 Lewis's Woodpecker Melanerpes lewis Red T 1 Lewis's Woodpecker (Georgia Depression population) Melanerpes lewis pop. 1 Red T 1 Long‐billed Curlew Numenius americanus Blue S 1 Sage Thrasher Oreoscoptes montanus Red E 1 Flammulated Owl Otus flammeolus Blue S 1 Band‐tailed Pigeon Patagioenas fasciata Blue S 1 White‐headed Woodpecker Picoides albolarvatus Red E 1 Hairy Woodpecker, picoideus subspecies Picoides villosus picoideus Blue Pine Grosbeak, carlottae subspecies Pinicola enucleator carlottae Blue Birds 19 DRAFT December 2013 American Golden‐Plover Pluvialis dominica Blue Vesper Sparrow, affinis subspecies Purple Martin Pooecetes gramineus affinis Red E 1 Progne subis Blue Bay‐breasted Warbler Setophaga castanea Red Cape May Warbler Setophaga tigrina Red Black‐throated Green Warbler Western Bluebird (Georgia Depression population) Setophaga virens Blue Sialia mexicana pop. 1 Red Williamson's Sapsucker, nataliae subspecies Sphyrapicus thyroideus nataliae Red E 1 Williamson's Sapsucker, thyroideus subspecies Sphyrapicus thyroideus thyroideus Red E 1 Brewer's Sparrow, breweri subspecies Western Meadowlark (Georgia Depression population) Sharp‐tailed Grouse, columbianus subspecies Spizella breweri breweri Red Sturnella neglecta pop. 1 Red Tympanuchus phasianellus columbianus Blue Common Nighthawk Chordeiles minor Yellow T 1 20 DRAFT December 2013 Bibliography
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