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AZTEC CIVILIZATION A History From Beginning to End Copyright © 2016 by Hourly History Limited All rights reserved. Table of Contents Introduction How the Aztecs Are Portrayed and How Their History Survives Defining Moments and their Search to Expand and Save the World Their Philosophy: its Impact on Social Life and How it Served the Kings Conclusion >>BONUSES<< Introduction With so many demands on our time, often we forget how precious it is until it's almost gone. Are we doomed by the inherent nature of time and our concerns about catastrophes that we inherited as humans? We may desperately attempt to understand the concept of god, sacrifice, and adhering to a path that might avoid impending doom. With so many reminders in life that our experiences on this planet are temporary, often we engage in wondering about what kind of mark we will leave behind. At least our memories absorb our experience as we reflect on our countdown, expectations, and circumstances, right? However, what if you knew the world might end sooner than you would like? What impression are we making on our communities or in our personal or professional lives? The Aztecs are considered the last of the ancient Mexican civilizations. They lived large, unsubtle lives, grappling with the subtleties of life even if much of their plan was written in the stars, and they anguished over the temporariness of their world. Today, we beat ourselves up in our modern societies as we wonder, where did the time go? We might become spiritual. Alternatively, we start making up for lost time and making the kinds of sacrifices that we expect of others, but ourselves seem challenged by. As our hourglass empties, despite what we go through now or what we have gone through in the past, how do we stand a chance of making sense of our place in the world? This dilemma may seem unique to us, as uniquely modern as digital communication. It might not surprise you that, in fact, it's a universal inquiry that has informed many cultures around the world, including the Aztec people. In the here and now, we might pursue a willingness to take on tasks and challenges that we might have procrastinated about when we consider our bucket lists or worry that life is passing us by. We suddenly find ourselves immersed in what life is really about instead of sitting there overwhelmed with it. We can feel it, although in the process we may wonder if our traditions, practices, and goals define us. In coming to terms with the why behind what we do with our lives, we're tapping into a very long, extraordinary human story. This story involves gazing into the abyss and reflecting on the temporariness of things, our bodies, relationships, the afterlife, and cultural ways. Moreover, that can be very scary depending on how we look at it. Ancient cultures like the Aztecs looked at temporariness, death interrelating with life and their beliefs in something much bigger than their own individual lives. They let this guide their daily lives and their decisions. Some might criticize some of the ways that they handled their fears associated with being human and the way they expressed their devotion to their gods, especially how blood and sacrifice filtered into their rituals. Consider how many religions and belief systems import the power of blood into their traditions, their reckonings and the nature of understanding either death or impending doom. It's sometimes worth considering how different their world was and how the past does not always explain the present, even as we find certain links and shedding of practices. We might appreciate stories about Japanese samurai and Aztec warriors, but appreciate they are of the past. Today, we might learn about a tradition that we find questionable from the perspective of being humane and sign a petition to attempt to sway the practitioners in finding a new method of worship and sacrifice. The processes of human growth are vast, and the potential of seeing ancient cultures as somehow less human is there, but it deprives us of seeing the whole picture. We need not condone or censure it. Others may draw parallels to the fate of many tribes, civilizations, empires, and secret societies. They may try to find explanations for these people, which for no apparently rational reason, followed their hearts. They were subject to the power, cycles of suffering, agony, mercilessness, resorting to violence for moral order, and a self-image that determined that the world's very existence hinged on human deeds. That, we might understand. Right here and right now, we're applying ourselves to our tasks and if only we can revel in all of our accomplishments. At times, we wonder whose praise we seek in our pursuits. Sometimes, we're doing it for our own sense of accomplishments. Other times, it's to show off our god-given talents and to prove our faith helps us achieve our goals. The Aztec Empire, with their deeply-ingrained cultural practices, were also dealing with the reality of their times and were not just shaped by traditions and practices. Even though the records show that they worshiped the sun and were in tune with their universe, they were developing a civilization way before their introduction to the Old World. In developing an understanding of the Aztec culture, this book sets out to point out some of the complexities of their empire. It considers various perspectives on various attributes. It will look at the philosophies that shaped their view of the world. It will also explore their Nahuatl roots and popular misconceptions, medical knowledge, the extent of their trade networks, their rulers, and discussions about their origins and collapse. It will fascinate you as we consider aspects of their society that will help you build a cultural awareness of the Aztec existence. In the meantime, be sure to keep in mind the nature of their way of escaping the misery and temporariness in life, and consider it as a student of cultural anthropology. While the human story embraces different practices guided by our emotional journeys and beliefs, there is a tendency to potentially dismiss histories that may challenge our sensibilities or raise deep questions. Every step of the way, we can witness their concept of god and what guided their expansion and daily lives. They had very real concerns about how the world might end and their role in making sure that didn't happen if they had anything to do with saving themselves from the possibility of destruction. Chapter One How the Aztecs Are Portrayed and How Their History Survives If you're keeping up on the current portrayals of Mexicans and by extension those who may be drawn to their Aztec roots in the media, you may have recently seen a controversy brewing in Texas. The controversy centers around an image on the cover of a Texas textbook that teaches Mexican-American heritage. The image depicts an "Aztec Dance Look" and features a barechested man with an elaborate headdress. The content has been criticized as characterizing Mexican-Americans in a racist way and conflating the history of Mexico with that of MexicanAmericans, since the cover image is in no way reflective of today's Mexican-Americans. It also negatively depicts the Chicano movement of the civil rights era for its activism as separatist in nature, when they were seeking their own empowerment within the American community at large. Instead of celebrating the need for a group to claim its roots and stand proudly wherever they may be, stereotypes glaze over the real intentions of people who reclaim their own pasts. In reality, and with cultural sensitivity, the Chicano movement distinguishes itself from Mexican roots by tapping into the very cultures that lived in the Mexican territories and the southwestern US territories before Mexico existed. Chicanos consider themselves Olmec, Mayan, Toltec, Aztec, and various indigenous people. Steeping oneself in the iconography of the Aztec and authentic history isn't only for individuals tracking their family lines on Ancestry.com. Shows like the very popular wrestling show Lucha Underground on the El Ray Network pride themselves in bringing on characters that are Aztec gods. Fans love it. The show researched the seven Aztec tribes that lived in the Chicomoztoc (the place of the Seven Caves) in Aztlan. Aztlan is purportedly the original home of the Aztec (meaning: people of Aztlan). This book will later discuss some of the Aztec Genesis stories and of the Nahua people who emerged from the seven caves. As legend would have it, at least in presenting the seven tribes that this show refers to and comprises in their seven medallions, these tribes were: Chalcas, Alcolhuas, Tepanecs, Tlahuicas, Tlascaltecs, Xochimilcas, and Aztecs. Some accounts list other tribes as part of the initial seven, like Malinalcas and Huexotzincas. People who view the show who have Latin roots feel like the show speaks to them on a cultural level. The Aztecs separated from the other Nahua tribes at these caves. The names of each of the tribes mentioned are derived mostly from the areas where they eventually settled after their exodus. The Lucha Underground title belt is comprised of gold from each of the seven tribes. The show taps into the possible myth or legend of the Chicomoztoc that has historically been explored in many studies of the early migration of the Aztec and continues to enthrall anyone interested in Aztec history and their cultural traditions. According to mythology, the caves were like Mother Earth's womb. The seven different caves brought into the world the leaders of the first people of these seven tribes. As the metaphoric place of emergence of all people of central Mexican descent, this place served as the ancestral homeland even if it was blended into any factual attempts to fit together any migrations to real places. Some investigators who question that these caves were mythical have tried to identify it on modern maps. Others question a single point of origin. Yet, it has had a lasting effect in the cultural traditions. It's understandable if we step back for a moment and consider how many cultural and religious traditions do not base their beliefs on empirical evidence but a need to honor the need of our ancient ones to provide some answers about why the world was the way it was. It reinforced a need for a sense of place and to find some threads to a history that was destroyed by conquerors. As we will discuss later, the Aztec's creation myths shaped their daily lives. Moreover, while we may be in an information age, we must remember this. The purpose of myth has often been to a culture much less about proving the stories true and more about explaining major events in a way that preserved the cultural values and traditions of a people and didn't relegate the question as unanswerable, but allowed the listener to interpret the past. Many interpretations exist of the cave with the seven tribes. As we will soon discuss, the organization of time and the rhythms of life governed the lives of the ancient Aztec. It is fascinating that a show like Lucha Underground weaves in the folklore into their program in today's world, feeding the cultural needs of its viewers and helping them unlock the mysteries of the past. As important as it is to retain some cultural tie to a past for a people, it is also significant to consider primary sources, artifacts, ancient texts, and archaeological evidence in broadening our understanding of the ancient Aztecs. With a history of conquistadors invading their lands, the Aztec history has taken time, perseverance, and dedication. Building the history has been magnified by the interest of the future generations who didn't want to reduce them to a void or heap that could only retrace its steps to the times determined to coincide with their last gasps of self-identity. Interest in Aztec history soared between 1700 and 1800. Our understanding of the Aztec empire relies on interpretations built on excavations, old manuscripts, statues, uncovered grand temples, codices, pictographs, Spanish chroniclers, pre-Conquest ritual calendars, maps, and records that record tributes paid to kings and other royalty. Archaeologists have found tools, human remains, jewelry, and pottery. Ethnoastronomers elaborate on the evidence that has been found, revealing the confluence of religion and everyday life. There exist ethnographies from contemporary Nahuatlspeakers and other indigenous people from Mesoamerica that also lend a valuable resource to our search for answers and to preserve scholarship in understanding Aztec metaphysics, philosophy, social order, their kings, practices, and their human struggles in the world they lived in. Some of the earliest excavations in the 1790s in Zocalo, today's main square in Mexico City, led to the discovery of the ancient Coatlicue statue and the Stone of the Sun. Coatlicue means “She of the Serpent Skirt” in the Nahuatl language of the Aztec, and this colossal statue was built sometime between 1487 and 1520. It is made of volcanic andesite and is eleven feet six inches high. Their large stone sculptures are considered one of the greatest artistic achievements. Hundreds of finely carved monuments have been revealed to broaden the interpretation of the Aztec as bloodthirsty warriors. The Aztec artisans inherited a stone carving tradition dating back 2,000 years through the Olmecs, Toltecs, Maya and Teotihuacan civilizations. According to "Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia," the Aztecs considered the acquisition of stone as an act of domination over the people who lived in the quarry's territory. In Colonial descriptions of the Aztec Sun Stone (or Calendar Stone), the Aztecs considered the stones to have magical properties, and that they could be used in devastating predictions about the overthrow of the empire. The deity Coatlicue has both female and male qualities, which is often the case in the Aztec cosmology. As the decapitated Aztec goddess of the earth, she wore a skirt made of snakes and a necklace of severed human hands and excised human hearts. Her role as both creator and destroyer of life has been emphasized in interpretations and also symbolizes the ambivalence of nature, according to María Herrera-Sobek in "Celebrating Latino Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Cultural Traditions, Volume 1." Coatlicue was celebrated twice a year in the House of Darkness, her temple in Tenochtitlan, during the spring ceremony of Tozozontli to celebrate the oncoming rain season and harvest and during the autumn ceremony of Quecholli to celebrate the hunt. These religious practices involved human sacrifice and bloodletting, including flayed skin as an offering to the earth goddess. Much has been written about the religious mythology of Coatlicue, and you can find some excellent starting points listed in the resources section of the book. The Aztec Stone of the Sun is a carved stone that depicts each of the twenty days of the month associated with a god. It resembles a sundial. The stone is 4 feet thick and 12 feet in diameter and weighs 24 tons. At the center of the stone, they carved a human-like face with an obsidian sacrificial knife ( teepatl) as a tongue, depicting the fifth sun, Tonatiuh. This stone has helped archaeologists understand and substantiate the prevailing thinking that Aztecs believed they were living at the time of the Fifth Sun. There is much debate about the significance of some of the dates that are described on the stone and whether the declining period of the Fifth Sun led to a day of destruction, or whether the stone celebrates the creation of the Fifth Sun, the era of the Aztec empire. This book will further shed light on the mysteries of the ages (suns) as the Aztecs saw it. According to Manuel AguilarMoreno in "A Handbook to Life in the Aztec World," the stone symbolizes the creation of the fifth sun. He suggests that it acts as a celebration of the creation of a world where the forces of creation and destruction play equal roles. Others, like Susan Milbrath in "Heaven and Earth in Ancient Mexico: Astronomy and Seasonal Cycles in the Codex Borgia," seem to suggest that the day 4 Ollin is the name of the Fifth Sun of the current era, and the predicted date of a cataclysmic earthquake that would destroy the Aztecs. Milbrath continues to reveal that some codices and studies have focused on 4 Ollin and its meaning; one of them, the Codex Telleriano-Remensis 12V, says that if the earth begins to tremble and the sun is eclipsed on this day, then the world will end. The end of El Quinto Sol has been the subject of debate. The search for these antiquities was spawned by groups that wanted to distinguish themselves from an imperial Spanish background, like the Creoles and Mestizos. During these politically charged times, they began to use evidence of Aztec and indigenous heritage as symbols of opposition to being ruled by Spaniards across the sea, according to David Carrasco in "The Aztecs: A Very Short Introduction." During the early 1800s, they unearthed sculptures of the goddess Coyolxauhqui. In 1913, they uncovered the Great Temple in Mexico City. More excavations in the 1970s led to unearthing treasures in Tenochtitlan, like the Coyolxauhqui Stone at the base of the Great Temple. According to Nicholas J. Saunders and Tony Allan in "The Aztec Empire," the site was considered so important that the President of Mexico in 1978 issued an order authorizing its excavation. A museum was opened at the Great Temple in 1987 containing significant numbers of antiquities. The Coyolxauhqui Stone depicts the daughter of Coatlicue dismembered on the ground for plotting to kill her own mother. You can find the details of the dismemberment by her unborn brother Huitzilopochtli (who only appears grown to stop his sister and the other siblings) in "Crossroads and Cultures, Combined Volume: A History of the World's Peoples." According to the authors, sacrificed warriors from all over the empire would have gotten a good look at that circular stone before climbing the temple stairs to their own deaths. As we will further explore, Aztec people couldn't escape the attached significance and meaning of the stories of their gods; not only the leaders of the empire but their religious leaders and sculptures reinforced these same concepts of what was considered not just myth but became the reality that underpinned their code of living. As we will learn later, while the status of an individual played a significant role in what was expected of them in playing out the traditions, no one truly escaped the perpetuated responsibilities to the Fifth Sun. Embrace with us our search of the past to understand how the Aztecs grappled with the ephemeral nature of life. Consider how sacrifice played into their understanding of human responsibility as they heeded the catastrophes that inevitably ruled their world. Chapter Two Defining Moments and their Search to Expand and Save the World Despite what a peripheral search of Aztec life may reap, the Aztecs experienced many defining moments during their empire besides the Spanish conquest, led by the famed Conquistador Hernan Cortes in 1519-1521. Just like we might think a headline in the newspaper can start a conversation, the same thing holds true about the Aztecs, who were a worthy and noble empire before they were forced to change the trajectory of their history forever. The Aztecs wanted to exert power and did so with concepts to structures military, social and political that differed from more familiar Western concepts that appear to us throughout history. They grew a dynamic empire over the course of nearly two hundred years from 1325-1521. Early defining moments in their efforts to build an empire that would rival all others in their surroundings include their arrival in the Valley of Mexico circa 1300 to establish their capital in Tenochtitlan, located just north of modern-day Mexico City. The discovery of a sense of place at the command of one of their gods Huitzilopochtli for the Aztecs was crucial to the future of their empire. Although there are different accounts and legends about the one hundred year migration that led them away from the land of white herons, Aztlan, they eventually settled in Tenochtitlan, led in the last stages by the priest Tenoch. The capital itself was founded in 1325. Accounts vary as to whether Aztlan is a real location. More about the legend about how the Aztec sun god Huitzilopochtli delivered to the Aztec leaders, in particular Tenoch's vision of Eagle and Cactus, a message to leave Aztlan and fulfill the prophecy, will be shared in the next chapter. However, when they arrived in the Valley of Mexico, the Toltecs ruled. In 1171, they were overthrown in an uprising that included the Aztecs. On their way to Tenochtitlan, they settled first in Chapultepec, or "Grasshopper Hill." They moved to Culhuacan in Tizaapan, where their tradition of human sacrifice turned off the neighbors. Although they had begun trading in the Culhuacan markets and offered themselves as warriors in the service of the king, they did not remain in good favor. Although some sources suggest that this is a semi-mythical turn of events for the Aztecs, according to "Assaulting the Past: Violence and Civilization in Historical Context," the Aztecs decided to mark their settlement by sending emissaries to Achicometl, the ruler of Culhuacan, to request his daughter as the bride to their god Huitzilopochtli and bestow her as a living goddess. Upon Achicometl's arrival, he and his dignitaries entered the temple and to his horror saw one of the priests dressed in the skin of his daughter. He vowed to annihilate the Aztecs; during the war, the Aztecs were driven away. Many Aztec kings trace their genealogy to the Toltecs. Their empire developed between 900 CE to 1200 CE. The Aztecs borrowed heavily from Teotihuacan, which was originally considered to be constructed by the Toltecs. However, eventually, further studies and more evidence disproved this when it became clear that Teotihuacan was significantly older than the Toltec main capital of Tula. While the Toltecs acquired skills from the descendants of the Teotihuacan, the Toltec rose to power after the collapse of Teotihuacan, after they arrived in the Valley of Mexico in 900 CE, led by their powerful king, Mixcoatl. The respect that the Toltec earned from many tribes in the area meant that many of them claimed Toltec ancestry. The Aztecs borrowed from them regarding technology, military organization, and other ways. According to Professor Miguel Leon-Portilla, the recipient of the National Institute of Anthropology and History’s (INAH) greatest distinction, the Eagle Warrior Award, the nomads who finally made it to Tenochtitlan so admired the Toltecs that they chose as their very first king a tlatoani, a nobleman of Toltec origin. King Acamapichtli was from Culhuacan and fathered a great number of children by various Aztec women. Their descendants formed the nucleus of the noble social class or pipiltin. As you will you come to appreciate in learning about the Aztec, they had a highly stratified social system of classes that they developed during their empire years. More will be discussed about this king in the next chapter. According to many experts, the term Aztec was acquired from European chroniclers, but the term has stuck. Many who focus on the Aztec use the more appropriate term Mexica, pronounced "may-SHE-ka." The ancestral root language of the Aztec, Apache, Toltec, Hopi, Shoshone and Navajo is Nahuatl. One term that was also used by the Toltecs at the time was Nahua-Chichimec. According to "The Aztec Calendar Handbook," the Mexica rulers assumed many of their origin stories, adapted them to their own historical realities, and assumed their agricultural traditions. In adopting the Toltec form of ruling with different ruling "houses," their system was not really a true fit to the European notion of empire, but more like a confederate system of allied lineage and calpulli clan structures. This allowed for autonomous home rulers when they conquered areas and a system of tribute collection that enforced their dominance and gave them economic control over conquered populations. Calpullis are considered the fundamental unit in the social pecking order of Aztec society. The figure Tenoch is written about and studied as both legendary myth and leader of the Aztecs. During his rule, the city of Tenochtitlan offered many ceremonial centers, markets, and ball courts. Tenoch, or tenuch, means stone-cactus fruit, and Tenochtitlan means "Among the Stone-Cactus Fruit." Although some reference materials question whether Tenoch was a real person, others claim he was the first "emperor" of Tenochtitlan from 1325 to 1375. Although we might more loosely interpret “empire” given that at the time of his rule the city itself was being established and a large army was forming, its missions were not yet borne out, and their organization was limited in scope. During that time they built this empire between the kingdoms of Azcapotzalco (Tepanecs) and Tetzcoco. Given they were a new presence, they lacked power and became food gatherers and agriculturalists to exchange goods. The ruler of Azcapotzalco, King Tezozomoc, decided to tax the Mexica heavily. In response, they reacted by expanding their kingdom. As we will discuss the various kings that lorded over the Aztec people later and their effect on the Aztec empire, it is notable to consider how trade defined them, as did some of the symbols of their great civilization. Trade was crucial to building their empire, alongside their tribute systems, their political accomplishments and their cultural icons and beliefs. It's easy to imagine that geopolitics in the Aztec era of Mesoamerica was highly complex given the number of kingdoms, customs, and power struggles; they were not only defined by warfare and diplomacy. Researchers from North Carolina State University, the Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional-Unidad Mérida, Purdue University, and El Colegio de Michoacan found that despite how the Aztec could have disrupted trade, they didn't always. One case in point focuses on the Tlaxcallan. While conflict and perpetual warfare did exist between the Aztec and the Tlaxcala, it doesn't appear that the Aztec attempted to sabotage all of the Tlaxcallan dealings that concerned other kingdoms. Today, Tlaxcala offers one of the most fascinating luminescent natural phenomena to visitors: each year, a large population of fireflies arrive at mate, and thousands of viewers visit to witness the nighttime illumination between June and August (Aztecs saw the fireflies as tiny lights of truth in the ignorance surrounding them according to the late Charles L. Hogue, a cultural entomologist who wrote the first comprehensive guide to insect life in the region, "Latin American Insects and Entomology"). For a little background about Tlaxcala, the book "Native Claims: Indigenous Law Against Empire, 1500-1920" offers some historical perspective. Tlaxcala was halfway between the Gulf of Mexico and the Valley of Mexico. It served as a trading hub throughout most of the period between 900 and 1500 CE. It was not a closed community, as goods moved from the central valley to the coast and all the way to the Yucatan. Regarding its relations with the Aztec, we can find many sources, but one to start out with gives us a little insight. Patricia Ybarra in "Performing Conquest: Five Centuries of Theater, History and Identity in Tlaxcala, Mexico," explained that Tlaxcala's identity was marked by its exclusion from the Triple Alliance of 1426, an alliance which we will go into further detail about in the next chapter. Suffice it to say, the Aztecs united with the city-state of Texcoco and Tlacopan. Tlacopan was a city-state that was situated very close to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on the shores of Lake Texcoco. As part of their Aztec imperial strategy, the three united against the long tyranny of the Tepanecs. The Tepanecs, whose capital was Azcapotzalco, made vassals of the new inhabitants of the island in Lake Texcoco that the Aztecs named Tenochtitlan. According to "Global Connections: Volume 1, to 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History," the rise of city-states in the valley made local politics unstable; as Tenochtitlan grew, they became respected allies rather than suspicious mercenaries. By the 1510s, Tenochtitlan was considered a major power among the half dozen in the valley. As soon as King Tezozomoc died, the Aztecs, along with these two city-states, crushed the Tepanecas, despite having gained tributes on conquered towns the Aztecs had assisted the Tepanecas in claiming previously. Tlaxcala, and two other independent states adjacent to the Basin, Huejotzinco and Metztitlan, had sharp conflicts with the Aztec. They participated in various wars of ritualistic significance. However, according to "The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization," Tlaxcala stood in the way of the Aztec empire's access to the resources of the rich coastal lowlands to the east. The relationship among these states was extremely competitive. By not becoming part of the alliance, they were forced to fortify themselves with walls and became isolated purposefully by the Aztecs. The Aztecs did block Tlaxcallan trade routes in 1502, preventing them from obtaining salt and cotton. In later years, the Tlaxcallans allied with the Spanish in fighting against the oppression suffered by their own people under the Aztec. However, the recent finding by the mentioned study conducted by North Carolina State University, along with several universities, question our assumptions that the Aztecs, who were openly hostile to the Tlaxcallans, would always intervene in the trade the latter conducted. When the researchers found that the Aztecs did not interfere with the Tlaxcallans when they obtained their obsidian from El Paredon, just outside the boundaries of the Aztec empire, they considered a few scenarios, including that obsidian was so easy to acquire that it would have been a waste of time for the Aztec. Despite the fact that there was an economic rift and open conflict, the Aztecs did not always overpower the Tlaxcala in trade-related matters. Although piecing together that one relationship with the Tlaxcala can be useful, it's also an opportunity to consider the trade networks the Aztecs conducted and the value of trade in this geopolitically complex Mesoamerican environment. It's better than stereotyping the Aztecs with a profile that brings to mind the Spanish Inquisition or bloody massacres. Although merchants held a high status in the extensive trade that the Aztecs conducted in the region, much has been written about the animosity between Aztec males and these very merchants. Still, the mountains were rich with gold, lumber, and water. Merchants made salves from prickly pear cactus. Moreover, the benefit of market systems was clearly recorded in documents showing rulers' incomes from market taxes. For starters, let's define a few terms. The Aztec market was called the tianguis and was considered a pillar of the Aztec economy. The hierarchy within the merchant class included guilds. In fact, the Aztec were said to have at least 30 guilds, according to "American Indian Contributions to the World," including all types of craftspeople. Merchants traded goods and food. Macehualtin (common people) worked as artisans, farmers, and laborers in Aztec society. Merchants traded the goods produced by the macehualtin. The Pochteca were at the top. Local and regional traders were called tlanecuilo or tlanecuiloani. Tlatmemes, porters or burden carriers, carried the goods that the merchants traded and wore them on their backs in woven containers or tied to hide-covered frames on their backs. A tumpline strap that crossed their forehead allowed them to carry weights up to 50 pounds for 13-18 miles a day. Every town within the Aztec empire had a market. People paid with gold-dusted bird feather quills, cacao beans, and woven cotton capes. If you're interested in learning more about how the market systems changed over time and corresponded to the locally-based political confederations and wider market systems resulting from political centralization, "Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia" looks at the changes in the distribution of ceramics that is fascinating. The Pocheca were the most elite merchants who went on long-distance trade expeditions importing luxury items. This special guild of wealthy commoners controlled long-distance trade. Luxury items included shells, textiles, jaguar pelts, rock crystals, obsidian, gold, and pottery. They would return with chicle (the gum of the sapodilla tree), medicines, herbs, nuts, cotton, rubber, and art. They lived in altepemeh, where they concealed their wealth behind high walls. According to Kent Flannery’s "The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire," they had their own armed guards since they traveled at night through hostile territories. Their favorite destination was Xicalango, which was located in the Mexican state of Tabasco. According to Michael C. Howard in "Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel," once the Aztec traders reached the lowlands of Tabasco, they came in contact with Maya traders who used canoes extensively. Apparently, the Aztec did not, and would rely on the Chontal Maya for water transport. They also traveled to Tlatelolco open market, north of Tenochtitlan, where 50,000 people shopped daily. The market in Tenochtitlan attracted 25,000 people. This class of merchants was considered invaluable to the kings since they could act as spies and agents of the kingdom, and the king could use their death or any attacks on the pochteca as a pretext for war on uncooperative states. The Pochteca were powerful. They derived substantial profits from regional exchanges and provided the upper-class items that were highly prized from foreign destinations. Bruce Trigger, in "Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study," explains that representatives of the pochteca were empowered to arrest, sentence and punish petty criminals, dishonest traders, and any tax evaders that dared to operate in the marketplaces. Members of their associations could be tried and sentenced by another pochteca. They had the right to execute their own members without royal approval as part of their policing authority. However much authority their privileged position granted them, there was still a stigma associated with the merchants that was based on suspicion given that they had close contacts with merchants from hostile communities. Although they kept their trade secrets and routes and were among an elite guild, they were not considered nobles, and they were beneath the techutli (lords). Tolteca (craftsmen) fell below the merchants. Slave traders also had a high status. The pochteca's god was Yacatecuhtli, the patron of commerce, known as the long-nosed god and also the lord who guides. They conducted business through barter. They could make loans of food and articles in return for pledges of land and other possessions, according to Christina Jacqueline Johns in "The Origins of Violence in Mexican Society." Although they were considered upwardly mobile and could travel relatively freely to all parts of Mesoamerica, those of the merchant class may have been rivalrous with one another; they also received animosity from other Aztec males. For one thing, according to Canadian archaeologist, anthropologist, and ethnohistorian Bruce Trigger, the Aztecs believed that social mobility or high status was only legitimate as a reward for outstanding military service. Their long-distance trade was considered ignoble. They could not hold public office, had to dress modestly in public, as opposed to soldiers that could proudly display their high status, and they could not marry a noble. Additionally, if they wanted to become a slave trader or the head of a pochteca calpolli, they had to sponsor a sacrifice and secure the cooperation of a high-ranking warrior. Before we talk about their notable defining figureheads, it's very interesting to note that studies continue to take a deeper look at how the Aztec conducted trade and how their strict merchant classes and societal hierarchies affected which luxury goods were enjoyed and by whom. Susan E. Alcock in "Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History," thinks that scholars have been misled into giving luxury goods too much importance to exaggerated claims of Aztec nobles in the works of often quoted Spanish chroniclers like Sahagun and Duran. In her own excavations at provincial Aztec sites, she found that even Aztec peasants in provincial villages had obtained luxury items even though sumptuary rules did exist. These laws prohibited commoners from wearing certain items that were associated with nobility to reinforce social hierarchies. While there are likely many symbols of the Aztec civilization, one that is particularly influential is Nezahualcoyotl. Another is the old symbol that you see on Mexico's flag today. Let's start with the latter. Did you ever look closely at the Mexican flag? In the middle of the flag, there is an old Aztec symbol. When Mexico won freedom from Spain in 1821, the symbol became their national emblem. Where did this symbol come from? Since Mexico City used to be Tenochtitlan, which was the capital of the Aztec empire and the first place Aztecs began to establish themselves permanently, the story of the symbol takes us back to that migration to Tenochtitlan. As legend has it, the leaders of the Aztecs received prophetic guidance in the land of the white herons, Aztlan. Although many question their single point of origin, others continue the unconcluded debate whether the legendary Chicomoztoc is real or a mythical origin place of many of the Nahuatl-speaking peoples. The Toltec version of the first wave of Mexica arriving in central Mexico states that they came around 540 BCE from what is now the Southwestern US. According to "The Aztec Calendar Handbook," one expert who published in the 1950s considered that the marshland of reeds, or Aztlan and the legendary seven caves, is a site in what is now called Kanab, Utah. Others think the group originated in the old Tule lakes in the Central Valley of California. Still others theorize it might be eastern Oakland. Others like David Carrasco in his book "Cave, City, and Eagle's Nest: An Interpretive Journey Through the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan, Issue 2" have combined all the clues together and figured out that the journey lasted thirteen days and have broken down the number of days it would take to walk to Tenochtitlan. Either way, it has survived through the ages and explains the symbol on the Mexican flag. Here's the story of the eagle and the cactus, at least one version of it, which seems to be the most prevalent one. Many years ago, from a faraway land known as Aztlan, the Aztec people, one of the seven Nahua tribes, left the place of seven underground caves known as Chicomostoc. The God of War and Sun, Huitzilopochtli, told the Aztec leaders that they were to leave their homeland. They must become nomads and head south. They would find their promised land, where they could rule and prosper. The way that they knew that they had found their promised land would be apparent, despite how long the journey may be and how long they would wander: they would receive a sign from their god. When they saw an eagle with a snake in its mouth landing on a nopal cactus, they would have discovered their destiny. The place became Tenochtitlan, the "place of the prickly pear cactus." One of the priests had the vision at the same spot where the heart of the sorcerer Copil had landed before he was killed, where the cactus grew. Some versions of the traditional story say that Copil was killed by the Aztecs on the command of Huitzilopochtli, while others say spies of Huitzilopochtli killed Copil. It's worth noting the story of Copil and its significance to Mexico and the history of the Aztecs. Mexico considers the story of the nopal cactus significant, and it is a critical link to the history of both the Aztec people and Mexico. Copil is the nephew of the god Huitzilopochtli. Copil prospered in a land just north of the island where the Aztec found the eagle and the snake on the cactus. Copil had decided he wanted to kill the god of War and the Sun, and, despite his mother's warning about the danger he would bring to himself, he gathered a small army on the shores of Lake Texcoco. When Huitzilopochtli found out from his spies, he commanded them to kill Copil and to bury his heart on an island in Lake Texcoco. The next day, the nopal cactus sprung from the very place, and they watched in awe as an eagle carrying a snake in its mouth swooped down to land on the cactus. According to Barbara Somervill in "Empire of the Aztecs," to the Aztecs, the Aztecs interpreted the eagle as the sun god that led them on the prophetic journey and the cactus as representing the human hearts offered to the sun. This would all be done to sustain their daily journey and keep the era of the Fifth Sun going. The Aztec built their temple to their god near the cactus. The city they built was remarkable. It is compared to Venice because of its canals. They engineered floating gardens called chinampas. It was a system of swamp reclamation. Aerial surveys reveal that the chinampa planning shows overall uniformity in size and orientation. They were constructed to be around 100 feet in length and 8 feet wide. The fenced in area would be filled with mud and decaying vegetation, and narrow canals for the passage of a canoe would leave room between two plots. Many hydroponics guides include the Aztec floating gardens as early examples of people exercising the technique with skill and with high productivity. The city was built aligned with the god's position in the sky, with a temple honoring Huitzilopochtli. A priest was instructed to divide the city into four quarters with the temple in the center. They tracked the Sun god Tonatiuh from the east to the west. Huitzilopochtli and Tonatiuh are closely related and overlap. To understand Aztec mythology is a vast discovery process. However, suffice it to say, Tonatiuh is a god who threw himself into a fire and sacrificed himself to become the fifth sun that the Aztec depended on. The Aztec people lived in the time of the Fifth Sun, explaining the importance Tonatiuh played to them and their rituals and worship. As Jesse Prinz wrote in "The Emotional Construction of Morals," Aztec myths had a common theme involving cycles of revenge and promoted a sense of extreme vulnerability, where an ongoing battle of divine forces ultimately can destroy the world. Moving on to the other symbol of importance in the Aztec culture, we'll briefly explore Nezahualcoyotl, who has been portrayed as the symbol of the Aztec civilization. He was the poet-king of Texcoco (a part of the Triple Alliance with Tenochtitlan and Tlacopan, which was the accord that formed the basis of the Aztec empire). He has been presented as a poet, a philosopher, an emperor who created a fair legal system, a great conqueror, a reluctant warrior, and as a king who rejected human sacrifice. He promoted the study of the more peaceful religion of Quetzalcoatl at a time when the Aztec practice of sacrifice was dominant. He is the only pre-Hispanic historical figure to appear on Mexican currency and appears on the one-hundred-peso bill along with an excerpt from his poem. Some like Jongsoo Lee, in "The Allure of Nezahualcoyotl: Pre-Hispanic History, Religion, and Nahua Poetics," argue that much of the current images stem from colonial manipulation or an invention to counter him as a universal symbol of peace that contrasted with the viciousness in the Aztec timeline. Apparently, Nezahualcoyotl (Hungry Coyote) was so influential because of his poetry that poets from many generations have sung his poems. World-renowned experts on the Aztec Miguel LeonPortilla, in his book "In the Language of Kings: An Anthology of Mesoamerican Literature, Pre-Columbian to the Present" that he co-wrote with Earl Shorris, describes a king that presided over decades of great art, architecture, poetry and philosophy in what may have been a kind of golden age in the Valley of Mexico. He did not accept the state religion and began to ask the same questions that dominated the thinking of the preSocratics. Chapter Three Their Philosophy: its Impact on Social Life and How it Served the Kings To better understand the Aztec, a good place to start is to consider what shaped their thinking. To the Aztec, their rulers were not considered gods. Although the notion of sacredness even appeared in the first principles of hunter-gatherer logic, the Aztec empire coordinated important calendar festivals and ceremonies to time and sacred places. According to Clive L. N. Ruggles in "Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth," evidence supports that Aztec perceptions were reinforced both by the way that temples were positioned in the landscape and by deliberate solar alignments built into the temples. One observation that has been made about the Aztec people adds to our initial attempts at understanding the Aztecs. There was no conflict between science and religion, and scientific and religious worldviews mutually reinforced each other. James Maffe, in "Aztec Philosophy: Understanding a World in Motion," argued that the Aztecs' religiosity no more precluded their philosophy than did the religiosity of St. Augustine or Spinoza or Kant or Ockham, to name a few. They did have a metaphysics. As Frances F. Berdan wrote in "Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory," it is difficult to disentangle religion, science and the arts in the Aztec world. We're not going to attempt to do that here. We will point out the interconnectedness of their take on the supernatural and natural, the visible and meditated, the legends that oriented them and how their kings reinforced their relevance by perpetuating the interrelated web they wove within the cycles of life, both earthly and otherwise. We'll start with their Legend of the Four Suns and proceed to how many souls each individual has. Then, we'll discuss how history has suggested that not only did their views get shaped over time depending on the ruler, but that there were alternatives being considered in advanced higher learning centers that were not mainstream and reveal that the fundamental questions of truth and reality were asked and not always dispersed by dictated responses. There are various versions of the legend. The Legend of the Four Suns revealed to the Aztecs that in order to maintain the existence of the cosmos, religious rituals were central. This legend told of four ages that had been dominated by four different suns, corresponding to the four directions. Ometeotl, the Supreme Creator, a god that was both male and female, created the abstract forces of the four directions and the four gods: Huitzilopochtli, Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca, and Xipe Totec, who in turn created the world. The human race and the world met with catastrophe and ended each time. The Aztecs lived in the age of the Fifth Sun, the "Olin Tonatiuh" (Sun Movement). Two gods, Nanahuatzin and Tecuciztecatl, were chosen to self-sacrifice, and Nanahuatzin jumped in and rose in the east as Tonatiuh, the sun god. The other emerged as the moon. Theirs was an anthropomorphic world, and the sacrifice of the two gods meant that there was a cosmic responsibility to sacrifice to continue the new age. Scholars do not think that the Aztecs tolerated challenges to the established social order. Priests, shaman, and magicians gained immense status, as they were able to use scientific knowledge, astrology, and religious beliefs that they coveted to support their authoritative predictions. Religious and sacrificial acts were performed on specific occasions to coincide with the phases of the Moon or the solstices, according to Roger Highfield and Peter Coveney in "The Arrow of Time." In order to satisfy the gods, the Aztecs believed they needed to sacrifice blood and present it and a beating human heart to the sun, or else it would vanish. The Aztecs also feared and expected the return of Quetzalcoatl, the white bearded god who would rule the empire. Plants were closely related to their large number of gods. Medical professionals venerated the goddess Toci. Priests venerated some of these like peyotl, picietl, huauhtli, and yauhtli because they were considered to be supernatural. Some were hallucinogens, like those that were the principal ingredients of teotlaqualli, used as an unction offered to the gods and smeared by Priests on themselves to dispel fear and reach appropriate states of mind to serve Aztec gods in rituals. Picietl played an unmistakable role in Aztec medicine and religion, especially the mind-altering properties used by diviners to make divinations. Tobacco was used as an antidote against poisonous animal bites, but was also not recreational and used for magical, religious, and medicinal applications. Each individual had three souls. The tonnali was the soul of will and intelligence found in the head. The ihiyotl was the soul of passion, luminous gas, and aggression found in the liver. The teyolia was the soul of fondness and vitality and was found in the heart. They believed that at the time of death, these souls traveled to different regions of the universe. If the death was ordinary, then they would go to Mictlan. If a warrior died in combat, a person was sacrificed to the sun, or a woman died in childbirth, they would go to the sun. They would go to Tlalocan, the rain god's paradise, if their death was water-related. Finally, infants that died while still being nursed would go to Chichihualcuauhco. It is also worth mentioning their concept of teotl. Teotl was a self-generating, regenerating sacred power and dynamic eternal force under everything. Reality, the cosmos, and people all consisted of teotl. Everything was unified by teotl, and everything was sacred. Their creator deity is named Ome-teotl. They imposed their concept of teotl ixiptla (god-image) into everything. According to "The History of the Conquest of New Spain," in the Aztec eyes, it was the god-image and not the human image that was being killed and transformed into creative energy when they performed their sacrifices. They clothed their captives in Aztec fashion to signify the transformation of men into the images of Aztec gods. A very thorough detailed account by the Spanish conquistador Diaz del Castillo describes ritual dances that accompanied these transformative sacrifices of captives. David Carrasco in "City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization," described how at the height of one of these festivals the Tlacaxipeualiztli (Feast of the Flaying of Men) in honor of Xipe Totec, in achieving their goal of sacrificing and flaying captive warriors and slaves and after they had been transformed into teotl-ixiptla, they were forced to dance with their captors. A brief review of their leaders can also provide an initial glimpse into how Aztec philosophy intertwined with governance. Some Aztec scholars, as referenced by James Maffie in "Aztec Philosophy: Understanding a World in Motion," believe that by the time of the Conquest, the ruling elite's greater emphasis on war and military conquest, the increased hierarchical stratification that occurred over time, and their more masculinist policies were to blame for the violent metaphysical view that dominated and framed the Aztecs as relentless warriors dominated by their fear of a collapsing sun. Still, although some in Western thinking may question how religious dogma and myth fantasies could lead to such practices and in the end consume a ruling elite (and some might say even the non-elite), it's important to consider the system of rewards they received for supporting their Aztec system. It often shaped their lives under different rulers while holding on to their prescribed beliefs. Much of what they did throughout their timeline derived from tradition and custom, which should explain a little more about the way they thought about things on a daily basis. Aztecs generally have been described as expecting little in return from life, since life was characterized as hard and full of worry, sorrow, and pain. Their society prided itself on curbing selfishness, making sacrifices, and concern for their destiny. They were urged to cultivate responsibility and selflessness, to be serious and calm, and to be polite. They were always being observed. Aztec men were very competitive and constantly tried to enhance their positions in society. Prestige came from warfare, ritual ball games, and gambling, and all men were expected to be prepared for sacrifice, although there were differences in how the nobility and the commoner could fulfill their sacrifices if the time came. There was a hierarchy of sacrifice, where the macehualtin sacrificed to the lords as the elites sacrificed to the gods. Sacrifice was expected of the macehualtin, since unlike the elites, they had very little else to offer. According to Elizabeth Hill Boone in "The Aztec Templo Mayor: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1983," the privileged could get away with blood letting and was a viable alternative to dying, and that only great lords and nobles could discharge their debts by sacrificing other humans. As you can imagine, power came from the nobility's wealth. A simple bloodletting could show how much a noble person was willing to sacrifice some of their blood for their empire. During the time of King Acamapichtli, who became the first king alongside his queen Lady Llancueitl from Culhuacan as an alliance between kingdoms, the time from 1375 CE to 1395 CE was important to the establishment of the empire. The Aztecs were loyal subjects to the King Tezozomoc of Azcapotzalco, but they felt they needed a king of the growing Tenochtitlan. Acamapichtli (Handful of Reeds) becoming king angered Tezozomoc since they did not request his approval. He required increased tributes from the Aztecs. Acamapichtli is considered to be the first tlatoani (he who speaks well, or king) of Tenochtitlan. Although he was a Culhua, they needed a legitimate nobleman. His strategy included marrying 20 of the daughters of calpulli leaders (the unit below city-state in early Aztec society) and he developed a basic legal code. According to Barbara A. Somervill in "Empire of the Aztecs," the importance of religious rites, including human sacrifice, grew under his leadership; he thought all citizens should take part in religious ceremonies. Under his leadership, a council of elders formed and chose tlatoani based on battle skills and leadership abilities. When he died, one of his sons, Huitzilihuitl, was chosen by the council to lead. He married one of the daughters of the King of Azcapotzalco in order to lower their tributes and gain more freedoms. After the marriage to Princess Ayaucihuatl, some of the desired reforms did occur. He ruled for 24 years. Here began the rift between the powerful families from Azcapotzalco that did not appreciate that the king accepted the marriage alliance and did not sustain the original policies of higher taxation and more autonomy. He lowered some of the taxes, and when Huitzilihuitl died, King Tezozomoc continued to promote peaceful relations with the next Aztec King, Chimalpopoca, who followed the same policies of his father. Unfortunately, the council under Tezozomoc turned on him for relenting to the Aztecs for favors on lowered taxes and other access requests. Apparently, his grandfather Tezozomoc, the King of Azcapotzalco, died from anguish; Chimalpopca was murdered in his sleep, as was his son. As a result of the king's untimely death, the Aztecs entered a state of panic. The council chose Itzcoatl, the illegitimate son of the first king Acamapichtli and the brother of Huitzilihuitl, for his strong warrior skills to protect the land and lead them into battle if necessary. He became king in the mid to late 1420s and ruled until 1440, immediately having to deal with the Tepanec lords of Azcapotzalco. To avoid war, they sent Tlacaelel to try to negotiate peace. However, the King of Azcapotzalco, Maxtla, did not want peace. Tlacaelel and Itzcoatl, with the support of the Aztec people, fought against the tyranny of the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco and allied with Tezcoco and Tlacopoan to form a Triple Alliance and began a new period marking a fight for liberation. They gained autonomy, and Tlacaelel gained great influence over Itzcoatl. Tlacaelel's influence, according to many historical accounts, seems to have become the stimulus for instituting the mysticmilitarist tradition among the Mexica by convincing them that they were people of the sun, establishing Huitzilopochtli as principal deity, and enforcing human sacrifice. Some doubt Miguel Leon-Portilla and others on this analysis since they question how it could be the work of one man. Leon-Portilla claimed that Tlacaelel increased the rate of human sacrifice in accordance with the idea of preserving the life of the Sun with human blood. He also explained that some of the wise men (tlamatinime) were against Tlacaelel's reforms and preserved the ancient religious cultural practices that celebrated their deity Quetzalcoatl in " in xochitl, in cuicatl." This meant "flowerand-song" literally, but signified the arts. According to "From Africa to Zen: An Invitation to World Philosophy," and several other experts, this challenged and provided an alternative to the idea that human sacrifice and warfare were necessary. True knowledge of the divine could be attained through artistic creations. Instead, Tlacaelel organized the Mexica army into totemistic brotherhoods: jaguars and eagle warriors. According to Charles A. Truxillo in "Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective," Tlacaelel also established the guerra de flores, ceremonial combat, that emphasized capturing prisoners for human sacrifice. When his brother Motecuhzoma I (14401469) became tlatoani, he manipulated the worship of Huitzilopotchli to justify the sacrifices. It's interesting to learn more about the tlamatinime, who emerged with a philosophical discourse that was not satisfied by the answers given by the mythic-militaristic tradition and origin stories about the world, death, afterlife and the nature of reality and reason for traditional practices. They believed that true insight into the nature of things could be achieved only by imitating the creative activity of the gods. What's fascinating, as observed by Robert C. Solomon and Kathleen Marie Higgins in "From Africa to Zen," is that this occurred in a setting that was intellectually isolated from the rest of the world. What makes that even more worthy of further exploration is that many Spanish chroniclers appeared to justify the conquering of the Aztecs based on the introduction of their practices and faith as a substitute for their barbaric ways. In reality, the tlamatinime reflected in a systemic way at schools of higher learning called calmecacs, which were open to all social classes and taught correct living and practical wisdom (the school for warriors was called telpochcalli). Some experts argue that these schools were only open to the children of nobles and future priests. Interesting enough, the authors of "Survivance, Sovereignty, and Story" explain how the famous Nahua thinker that was mentioned earlier, Nezahualcoyotl, learned the concept of in ixtli in yollotl while part of the Calmecac. They describe the Calmecac as a collective of people who gathered together to learn and pass on inherited wisdom. The concept translated as "a face a heart" and signified the process of becoming human. It's worth exploring this concept more in depth to appreciate its significance to the Aztec times. While much has been written about the Aztec kings, a brief highlight follows. King Itzcoatl, as leader of the Triple Alliance that was forged with Nezahualcoyotl (Texcoco) and Totoquilhuaztli (Tlocopan), laid the foundation of the Aztec empire with victories over various regional powers that became kingdoms of the Aztecs. Tlacaelel urged the burning of the codices and had historians rewrite a mythological revision for divine militaristic mission. Under Motecuhzoma I, these were considered richer times than under previous leaders. War efforts included simulated wars with the ruler of Tezcoco to intimidate other regional powers and mark superiority. One battle with the Chalcas turned into a sacred crusade as both sides claimed captives for sacrifice. The king left a legacy of wealth, land, and grandeur. King Axayactl, Tlacaelel's nephew, assumed the throne in 1469, and under his leadership, the Aztecs conquered the kingdom of Tlatelolco. He expanded the Aztec empire and exerted power over more regions. He left the Aztecs in a period of some instability, and when King Tizoc (1481-1486) came to power, his war record reduced Aztec's credibility as a military power. The importance of the appearance of power weighed heavily on the Aztecs. Revolts started against the empire, and after much face saving that didn't work, Tizoc was allegedly poisoned by people he trusted and replaced by his more aggressive brother Ahuitzotl. During his reign (1486-1502), he wiped out rebels and repopulated the area with loyals. He urbanized the capital, annexed a region of Guatemala, and conquered parts of Guerrero, Puebla, and Veracruz. Finally, the most written about Aztec king who fell to the Spanish during the conquest, Motecuhzoma II, ruled from 1502-1520. By the time of his rule, the conquered people upon whom the Aztecs depended for tributes and slaves revolted. Some of it had to do with King Ahuitzotl officiating over the sacrifice of 20,000 victims in a single ceremony, celebrated after a battle. The Aztec aggressiveness caught up with them, and when push came to shove, many of these regional groups sided with the Spanish. As the colonies tried to gain independence, he tried to maintain the empire's unity with horrifying penalties, rewarded loyalties, and in some cases, like with Quetzaltepec and Tototepec, he burned down the cities and killed every adult male. Nezahualpilli, the son of Nezahualcoyotl and emperor of Texcoco, is known to have helped warn the Aztec emperor Motecuhzoma II (famously known as Montezuma) of a powerful kingdom that would rise and destroy the Aztec empire a few years before Spanish warships appeared on the horizon. The accounts about Motecuhzoma's state of mind afterward suggest that he was paranoid and that he relieved many of his astrologers, sorcerers, shamans and wizards for not witnessing the celestial event that led Nezahualpilli to warn Motecuhzoma II of impending doom. While there are very interesting in-depth accounts focusing on the Conquest period, a few turning points are helpful in understanding why the council of elders in 1520 elected King Cuitlahuac to serve them, replacing Motecuhzoma. The first siege on Tenochtitlan was preceded by a meeting between Cortes and Motecuhzoma. While various accounts explore whether or not Motecuhzoma thought that Cortes was the legendary Toltec king Quetzalcoatl (who opposed slavery and sacrifice) coming back as a god to reclaim his throne, what remains consistent is that when Cortes arrived in 1519, their initial meeting was peaceful - too peaceful possibly for the elders, as it turned out. According to "Converging Worlds: Communities and Cultures in Colonial America," accounts of the meeting between them differ, but based on indigenous narratives, it was clear there was tension and irritation between them, unlike some of Cortes' or Spanish chronicler accounts that suggest Motecuhzoma may have been caught by surprise or naive. Many accounts explain that before their meeting on November 8, 1519, the Aztecs had met the Cortes ships with lavish gifts in May and discouraged them from coming to Tenochtitlan or meeting with Motecuhzoma II. Still, Cortes insisted on doing that. He went on to pillage several towns and founded a new Spanish settlement in Mexico to be named Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (Rich Town of the True Cross). Cortes was elected the mayor. He met with several chiefs and leaders and forged alliances to overthrow the Aztecs that summer. As Aztec messengers tried to prevent the Spaniards from crossing into Tenochtitlan, Cortes requested that some of the kingdoms that pay tributes stop paying them to the Aztecs. In the fall, the Spaniards fought in the Tlaxcala battles and conducted the Cholula Massacre. At this point, Motecuhzoma sent a secret message to Cortes inviting him to the capital while secretly arranging obstacles to delay the Spanish advance. He avoided an ambush and made it to Tenochtitlan to meet with the reluctant Aztec king. Within a week, Cortes took the king hostage and then, following Cortes' brutal attack at a ceremonial feast in honor of Huitzilopochtli, Motecuhzoma advised his people not to retaliate. At that point, the elites rejected his counsel and decided he was no longer part of the struggle. Although Cuitlahuac died two months later from the smallpox that the Spaniards brought with them, the trust deficit that Motecuhzoma created by allowing the Spanish into Tenochtitlan would never disappear. King Cuauhtemoc, son of Ahuitzotl, led troops against the invaders and created strongholds. For those who are interested, the accounts about the Noche Triste, considered a decisive Aztec victory, and Cuauhtemoc's war council, as well as the lead up to Spanish victory over the Aztec in 1521, provide a thorough look at this turning point in history in attempts to defend Tenochtitlan. Conclusion While there are so many fascinating topics to continue to investigate on your voyage of the Aztec, one to stress that has not been covered is the system of reward that influenced the Aztecs in continuing to follow tradition and to trust in their shaman, rulers, and system. Although we can look back at the past at an empire such as the Aztecs and wonder how they were so influenced to participate in their traditions, hierarchies, and empire-supporting obligations, consider this about the Aztecs: commoners could advance if they captured enemy warriors in battle. During their training, if young soldiers failed, even within a group to capture, they were not allowed to cut off a youthful lock of hair, which would have been considered a lifelong humiliation, according to Bruce G. Trigger in "Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study." Titles were bestowed on warriors who did capture a prisoner for ritual sacrifice. Given that they were desperately concerned about their destiny, and sacrifice was explained as a way to commune with the divine, it's not surprising that there is evidence that they accepted their own sacrifice and cultivated a stoic attitude to death. According to Tim Megarry in "Society in Prehistory: The Origins of Human Culture," status was achieved in their society through military prowess and capture of prisoners, and they had a vested interest in maintaining the military-religious complex. Finally, if that social pressure and motivation wasn't enough, according to Justyna Olko in "Insignia of Rank in the Nahua World: From the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Century," Aztec nobles and warriors strived for personal promotion, even if their lives were at stake; the desire for high-ranking, costly insignia and status items were a strong personal motivation. Commoners drew energy and a renewed sense of purpose from devotion and rituals, as it provided them an unquestionable relevance and importance as a people despite the burden and heavy obligation due to the inherent instability of the universe. Their fear of the impending destruction of the fifth sun, their motivation to escape the anguish of temporariness of our world, and their desire to endure their responsibility was real. According to Ross Hassig in "Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control," it wasn't just a mechanistic fight for the gods, but instead commoners who fought in the wars for good reasons and to gain prominence. These were men and women with real goals and purposes - and real constraints. The Aztecs appeared to have an underlying spirit beneath everything they did, as if by holding onto the past through myths, religion, and their passed down devotion to traditional ways of communicating with the divine, they would never again be subjugated as they were at the beginning of their journey toward building their own empire. They learned along the way what it took to secure and project power from those regional powers that held them under the gun and made them feel hopeless and disempowered. They developed their own equivalent to a Geneva Convention that made sure that major battles didn't interfere with growing seasons. They figured out that headaches were caused by an excess of blood in the arteries in the brain or on the surface of the head before European doctors did. They built extraordinary botanical gardens. Their sacrifice and their cosmic responsibility spoke of their pride and pointed to their temples and a critical nature of the manner of one's death in determining their spiritual destiny. The afterlife held many promises. Honorable death preoccupied many in their society, while others saw it as a tool of political oppression and looked for other ways to tap into the divine, who defied their interpretation of Nahuatl religion and its political utility. When we consider looking through that lens at the past, it helps to consider the human qualities of the Aztec that helped them develop their empire and maintain a better sense of how limiting historical accounts are that only tell the story from the Spanish invaders' perspectives, glorifying their past at the expense of gaining a fuller picture. Piecing together their past, we can continue to explore how much political and social realities, and practical necessities, shaped their decisions. Yet, we cannot consider that they fall conveniently into a derogatory category that justified the Old World invaders or the destruction of their historical records. Thankfully, for those who know how important name and identity are, they can reflect beyond getting a grasp of the nature of a civilization and see it as a complex society that intrigues us. Maybe how we look at time ourselves and in our place in it keeps death at bay, separate from life. Some who look at time to recreate the past to condemn that which changes around them while they get closer to death never separate birth from death. The Aztecs' continual awareness of death that permeated their lives did not allow the past to die, but the very nature of life's pursuits meant that if they allowed this world to extinguish it was a fate worse than death. Can I Ask A Favor? If you enjoyed this book, found it useful or otherwise then I’d really appreciate it if you would post a short review on Amazon. I do read all the reviews personally so that I can continually write what people are wanting. If you’d like to leave a review then please visit the link below: Click Here to Leave a Review Thanks for your support! Your Free eBooks! As a way of saying thank you for reading our book, we're offering you a free copy of the below e-Books. Happy Reading! >> Click Here << >> To Get Your FREE eBook <<