Download Erwin Rommel

Erwin Rommel
1
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel
Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel
Nickname
Wüstenfuchs (Desert Fox)
Born
Heidenheim, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire
Died
14 October 1944 (aged 52)
Herrlingen, Nazi Germany
Buried at
Cemetery of Herrlingen
Allegiance
•
•
•
[1]
Service/branch
German Empire (to 1918)
Weimar Republic (to 1933)
Nazi Germany (to 1944)
Imperial German Army
Reichswehr
Wehrmacht
Years of service 1911–1944
Rank
Generalfeldmarschall
Commands held •
•
•
•
•
7th Panzer Division
Afrika Korps
Panzer Army Africa
Army Group Africa
Army Group B
Erwin Rommel
2
Battles/wars
World War I
•
•
•
First Battle of the Argonne (1915)
Carpathian Offensive (1915)
Battle of Caporetto (1917)
World War II
•
•
Invasion of Poland
Fall of France
Battle of Arras (1940)
North African Campaign
•
•
•
Siege of Tobruk (1941)
Operation Crusader (1941)
Battle of Gazala (1942)
Battle of Bir Hakeim (1942)
First Battle of El Alamein (1942)
Battle of Alam Halfa (1942)
Second Battle of El Alamein (1942)
Battle of Medenine (1943)
• Battle of the Kasserine Pass (1943)
Battle of Normandy (1944)
Awards
•
•
•
•
Pour le Mérite
Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds
Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)
Order of Michael the Brave
Relations
Manfred Rommel
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Signature
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel[1] (15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944), popularly known as the Desert Fox
(Wüstenfuchs, listen), was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and
the enemies he fought.
Rommel was a highly decorated officer in World War I and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his exploits on the
Italian front. In World War II, he further distinguished himself as the commander of the 7th Panzer Division during
the 1940 invasion of France. However, it was his leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African
campaign that established the legend of the Desert Fox. He is considered to have been one of the most skilled
commanders of desert warfare in the conflict.[2] He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied
cross-channel invasion in Normandy.
As one of the few generals who consistently fought the Western Allies (he was never assigned to the Eastern Front),
Rommel is regarded as having been a humane and professional officer. His Afrikakorps was never accused of war
crimes. Soldiers captured during his Africa campaign were reported to have been treated humanely. Furthermore, he
ignored orders to kill captured commandos, Jewish soldiers and civilians in all theaters of his command.[]
Late in the war, Rommel was linked to the conspiracy to kill Adolf Hitler. Because Rommel was widely renowned,
Hitler chose to eliminate him quietly. Rommel agreed to commit suicide by taking a cyanide pill, in return for
assurances his family would be spared.
Erwin Rommel
Early life and career
Rommel was born on 15 November 1891 in Heidenheim, 45 kilometres (28 mi) from Ulm, in the Kingdom of
Württemberg (then part of the German Empire). He was baptised on 17 November 1891. He was the second child of
the Protestant headmaster of the secondary school at Aalen, Professor Erwin Rommel Senior (1860–1913), and
Helene von Luz, who had two other sons and a daughter. Rommel wrote that "my early years passed quite happily."
At age 14, Rommel and a friend built a full-scale glider that was able to fly short distances, and he continued to
display extraordinary technical aptitude throughout his life. Although Rommel considered becoming an engineer, at
age 18 he acceded to his father's wishes and joined the local 124th Württemberg Infantry Regiment as a fähnrich
(English: ensign), in 1910, studying at the Officer Cadet School in Danzig. He graduated on 15 November 1911 and
was commissioned as a leutnant in January 1912.
While at Cadet School, Rommel met his future wife, 17-year-old Lucia Maria Mollin (commonly called Lucie). They
married on 27 November 1916 in Danzig and on 24 December 1928 had a son, Manfred Rommel, who later became
the Mayor of Stuttgart. Some historians believe Rommel also had a relationship with Walburga Stemmer in 1913,
which allegedly produced a daughter, Gertrud.[3]
World War I
During World War I, Rommel fought in France as well as in Romania (see: Romanian Campaign) and Italy (see:
Italian Campaign), first in the 6th Württemberg Infantry Regiment, but through most of the war in the Württemberg
Mountain Battalion of the elite Alpenkorps. He gained a reputation for great courage, making quick tactical decisions
and taking advantage of enemy confusion. He was wounded three times and awarded the Iron Cross, First and
Second Class. Rommel also received Prussia's highest award, the order of Pour le Mérite, after fighting in the Battles
of the Isonzo in the north-eastern Alps on the Isonzo river front. The award was for the Battle of Longarone and the
capture of Mount Matajur and its Italian defenders, which totalled 150 officers, 9,000 men, and 81 artillery pieces. In
contrast, Rommel's detachment suffered only six dead and 30 wounded during the two engagements, a remarkable
achievement.
For a time, Rommel served in the same infantry regiment as Friedrich Paulus, who, like Rommel, rose to the rank of
Field Marshal during World War II. While fighting at Isonzo, Rommel was caught behind Italian lines, but managed
to escape capture, though almost all of his staff were taken prisoner. In the Second World War, when the Germans
and Italians were allies, Rommel tempered his initial disdain of Italian soldiers, when he realized their lack of
success was principally due to poor leadership and equipment. When these difficulties were overcome, they were
equal to German forces.[4] Erwin Rommel wrote a book, Infanterie Greift An (Infantry Attacks), in which he
examined and analyzed the many battles he fought in during World War I. It was published in 1937 and became
essential reading for both German and Allied commanders during World War II. He taught his men to dig in
whenever they paused for any length of time. This paid off many times when French artillery fired upon his position,
only to be shrugged off by the entrenchments built by Rommel's men.
Career between the world wars
Rommel turned down a post in the Truppenamt (the camouflaged General Staff), whose existence was forbidden by
the Treaty of Versailles—the normal path for advancing to high rank in the German army. Instead, he preferred to
remain a frontline officer.
Rommel held battalion commands and was an instructor at the Dresden Infantry School from 1929 to 1933. In 1934,
his book for infantry training, “Gefechts-Aufgaben für Zug und Kompanie : Ein Handbuch für den Offizierunterricht“
(Combat tasks for platoon and company: A manual for the officer instruction), appeared. This book was printed until
1945 in five editions, with revisions and changes of title. From 1935 to 1938, Rommel held commands at the
Potsdam War Academy. Rommel's war diaries, Infanterie greift an (Infantry Attacks), published in 1937, became a
3
Erwin Rommel
4
highly regarded military textbook and attracted the attention of Adolf Hitler, who placed Rommel in charge of the
War Ministry liaison with the Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend), Headquarters of Military Sports, the branch involved
with paramilitary activities, primarily terrain exercises and marksmanship. Rommel applied himself energetically to
the task. The army provided instructors to the Hitler Youth Rifle School in Thuringia, which in turn supplied
qualified instructors to the HJ's regional branches.
In 1937, Rommel conducted a tour of Hitler Youth meetings and encampments and delivered lectures on German
soldiering while inspecting facilities and exercises. Simultaneously, he was pressuring Baldur von Schirach, the
Hitler Youth leader, to accept an agreement expanding the army's involvement in Hitler Youth training. Schirach
interpreted this as a bid to turn the Hitler Youth into an army auxiliary, a "junior army" in his words. He refused and
denied Rommel (whom he had come to dislike personally, apparently out of envy for his "real soldier's" appeal)
access to the Hitler Youth. An agreement was concluded, but on a far more limited scope than Rommel sought;
cooperation was restricted to the army's providing personnel to the rifle school. By 1939 the Hitler Youth had 20,000
rifle instructors. Simultaneously, Rommel retained his place at Potsdam.
In 1938 Rommel, now a colonel, was appointed Kommandant of the War Academy at Wiener Neustadt (Theresian
Military Academy). Rommel was removed after a short time, however, to take command of Adolf Hitler's personal
protection battalion (FührerBegleitbataillon), assigned to protect him in the special railway train (Führersonderzug)
used during his visits to occupied Czechoslovakia and Memel. It was during this period that he met and befriended
Joseph Goebbels, the Reich's Minister of Propaganda. Goebbels became a fervent admirer of Rommel and later
ensured that Rommel's exploits were celebrated in the media.
World War II
Poland 1939
Rommel acted as commander of the Führerbegleithauptquartier
(Führer escort headquarters) during the Poland campaign, often
moving up close to the front in the Führersonderzug and seeing much
of Hitler. After the Polish were defeated, Rommel returned to Berlin to
organize the Führer's victory parade, taking part himself as a member
of Hitler's entourage. During the Polish campaign, Rommel was asked
to intervene on behalf of one of his wife's relatives, a Polish priest who
had been arrested. When Rommel applied to the Gestapo for
information, the Gestapo found no information about the man's
existence.
Rommel with Hitler, von Reichenau and
Bormann in Poland (September 1939)
France 1940
Panzer commander
Rommel asked Hitler for command of a panzer division. On 6 February 1940, three months before the invasion of
France, Rommel was given command of the 7th Panzer Division, for Fall Gelb ("Case Yellow"), the invasion of
France and the Low Countries. This promotion provoked resentment among some of his fellow officers. Rommel's
initial request for command had been rejected by the Chief of Army Personnel, who cited his lack of previous
experience with armoured units and his extensive prior experience in an Alpine unit made him a more suitable
candidate to assume command of a mountain division that had recent need to fill its commanding officer post.[5]
Rommel had, however, emphasized the use of mobile infantry and recognized the great usefulness of armoured
forces in the Poland campaign. He set about learning and developing the techniques of armoured warfare with great
enthusiasm.[6] The decision to place him in command of an armoured division was borne out to be an excellent one.
Erwin Rommel
5
In May 1940 his 7th Panzer Division became known as the "Ghost Division" because its rapid advances and fast
paced attacks often placed them so far forward that they were frequently out of communication with the rest of the
German army.
Invasion of France and Belgium
On 10 May 1940 a part of XV Corps under General Hoth advanced into Belgium to proceed to the Meuse river near
the Walloon municipality of Dinant. At the Meuse, 7th Panzer was held up by destroyed bridges and determined
sniper and artillery fire from the Belgian defenders. Rommel, having assumed personal command of the crossing,
overcame the German lack of smoke grenades by ordering a few nearby houses to be set on fire to conceal the attack.
The German Panzergrenadiers crossed the river in rubber boats, with Rommel leading the second wave.[7] The
Division dashed further inland, always spurred on by Rommel, and far in front of any friendly forces.
Rommel's technique of pushing forward boldly, ignoring risks to his flanks and rear and relying on the shock to
enemy morale to hinder attacks on his vulnerable flanks, paid large dividends during his rapid march across
France.[8] When encountering resistance, Rommel would simply order his tanks forward, all guns blazing, relying on
the shock of the sudden assault to force the enemy to surrender. This method offset the disadvantage the German
tanks had in terms of armour and low-calibre guns, often causing large formations of enemy heavy tanks to simply
give up a fight they would otherwise have had a good chance of winning.[9] This approach, although it saved lives on
both sides by avoiding prolonged engagements, did cause mishaps. On one occasion his tanks, following this tactic,
closed with a convoy of French trucks and fired into them before realizing that they were acting as ambulances,
ferrying wounded from the front.[9]
Battle of Arras
By 18 May the Division had captured Cambrai, but here Rommel's advance was checked briefly. His chief of staff,
still with the unmotorized part of the Division in Belgium and not having received radio reports from Rommel, had
written off Rommel and his combat group as lost and so had not arranged for fuel to be sent up.[10] There was a
degree of controversy over this issue, with Rommel furious at what he perceived as a negligent attitude on the part of
his supply officers, whereas his chief of staff was critical of Rommel's failure to keep his staff officers informed of
his actions.
Rommel in the Western Europe campaign (June
1940)
On 20 May Rommel's tanks reached Arras. Here he wanted to cut off
the British Expeditionary Force from the coast and Hans von Luck,
commanding the reconnaissance battalion of the Division, was tasked
with forcing a crossing over the La Bassée canals near the city.
Supported by Stuka dive bombers, the unit managed to cross
whereupon the British launched a counterattack (the Battle of Arras)
on 21 May. Facing the British Matilda tanks, the Germans found their
3.7-cm guns useless against the heavy armour and a battery of 88 mm
guns had to be brought up to deal with the threat, with Rommel
personally directing the fire.
After Arras, Hitler ordered his tanks to hold their positions, while the British, in Operation Dynamo, evacuated their
troops at Dunkirk, and the 7th Panzer Division was given a few days of much-needed rest. On 26 May, 7th Panzer
continued its advance, reaching Lille on 27 May. For the assault on the town, General Hoth placed his other tank
division, 5th Panzer Division, under Rommel's command, to the chagrin of its commander, General Max von
Hartlieb-Walsporn.[11] The same day, Rommel received news that he had been awarded the Knight's Cross of the
Iron Cross; the first divisional commander to be so honoured during the campaign. This award, which had been
secured for Rommel at Hitler's behest, caused more animosity among fellow officers, who were critical of Rommel's
Erwin Rommel
close relationship with Hitler. They believed that this was further evidence that Hitler seemed to give Rommel
preferential treatment.[11]
On 28 May, while making the final push into Lille and far in front of friendly forces, 7th Panzer came under heavy
fire from French artillery. Rommel drove his forces on, capturing Lille, trapping half of the French First Army, and
preventing their retreat to Dunkirk. After this coup, Rommel's forces were again given time to rest.
Drive for the English Channel
Rommel, resuming his advance on 5 June, drove for the River Seine to secure the bridges near Rouen. Advancing
100 kilometres (62 mi) in two days, the division reached Rouen only to find the bridges destroyed. On 10 June,
Rommel reached the coast near Dieppe, sending his "Am at coast" signal to the German HQ.
On 15 June, 7th Panzer started advancing on Cherbourg. On 17 June, the Division advanced 35 kilometres (22 mi),
capturing the town on the following day. The Division then proceeded towards Bordeaux but stopped when the
armistice was signed on 21 June. In July, the Division was sent to the Paris area to start preparations for
Unternehmen Seelöwe (Operation Sea Lion), the planned invasion of Britain. The preparations were half-hearted,
however, as it soon became clear that the Luftwaffe would not be able to secure air superiority over the Royal Air
Force.
Ghost Division
The 7. Panzer-Division was later nicknamed Gespenster-Division (the
"Ghost Division"), because of the speed and surprise it was
consistently able to achieve, to the point that even the German High
Command at times lost track of its whereabouts. It also set the record
for the longest thrust in one day by tanks up to that point, covering
nearly 320 kilometres (200 mi).
Rommel received both praise and criticism for his tactics during the
French campaign. Many, such as General Georg Stumme, who had
previously commanded 7th Panzer Division, were impressed with the
speed and success of Rommel's drive; however, others were more
reserved, some out of envy, others because they felt Rommel took
Erwin Rommel at a Paris victory parade (June
unnecessary risks. Hermann Hoth publicly expressed praise for
1940)
Rommel's achievements, but had private reservations, saying in a
confidential report that Rommel should not be given command over a
corps unless he gained "greater experience and a better sense of judgment."[12] Hoth also accused Rommel of an
unwillingness to acknowledge the contributions of others to his victories.
The Fourth Army commander, General Günther von Kluge, also criticised Rommel for falsely claiming all the glory
for his achievements. Rommel did not, Kluge felt, acknowledge the contribution of the Luftwaffe, and Rommel's
manuscript describing his campaign in France misrepresented the advances of neighbouring units to elevate the
achievements of his own dazzling advances. Kluge also cited the complaint by General Hartlieb that Rommel had
misappropriated 5th Panzer's bridging tackle on 14 May after his own supplies had run out in order to cross the
Meuse, delaying 5th Panzer for several hours.[13] Rommel had repeated this procedure on 27 May at the River
Scarpe crossing.
6
Erwin Rommel
North Africa 1941–1943
Rommel's reward for his success was to be promoted and appointed commander of the 5th Light Division (later
reorganised and redesignated 21.Panzer-Division) and of the 15.Panzer-Division which, as the Deutsches
Afrikakorps,(listen) were sent to Libya in early 1941 in Operation Sonnenblume to aid the demoralised Italian troops
which had suffered a heavy defeat from British Commonwealth forces in Operation Compass. It was in Africa where
Rommel achieved his greatest fame as a commander.
First Axis offensive
His campaign in North Africa earned
Rommel the nickname "The Desert
Fox." On 6 February 1941 Rommel
was ordered to lead the Afrika Korps,
sent to Italian Libya to help shore up
the Italian forces which had been
driven
back
during
Operation
Compass,
launched
by
British
The Western Desert area, showing Rommel's first offensive 24 March – 15 June 1941.
Commonwealth
forces
under
Major-General Richard O'Connor
during December 1940. Initially ordered to assume a defensive posture and hold the front line, the Axis High
Command had slated a limited offensive towards Agedabia and Benghazi for May, planning then to hold the line
between those cities. Rommel argued that such a limited offensive would be ineffective, as the whole of Cyrenaica
would have to be captured if the front lines were to be held.[14] The task of even holding the remaining Italian
possessions seemed daunting, as the Italians had only 7,000 soldiers remaining in the area after O'Connor's
successful capture of 130,000 prisoners and almost 400 tanks during the previous three months of advance.[15]
On 24 March 1941 Rommel launched a limited offensive with only the 5th Light Division supported by two Italian
divisions. This thrust was to be minor, in anticipation of Rommel receiving the 15th Panzer Division in May. The
British, who had been weakened by troops being withdrawn to fight in the Battle of Greece, fell back to Mersa el
Brega and started constructing defensive works. Rommel decided to continue the attack against these positions in
order to prevent the British from building up the fortifications.[16] After a day of fierce fighting, the Germans
prevailed and the advance continued as Rommel disregarded holding off the attack on Agedabia until May. The
British Commander-in-Chief Middle East Command, General Archibald Wavell, overestimating the strength of the
Axis forces and already apprehensive about the extent of his advances during the previous winter, ordered a
withdrawal from Benghazi in early April to avoid being cut off by Rommel's thrust.
Rommel, seeing the British reluctance to fight a decisive action, decided on a bold move: the seizure of the whole of
Cyrenaica despite having only light forces. He ordered the Italian Ariete armoured division to pursue the retreating
British while the 5th Light Division was to move on Benghazi. Generalmajor Johannes Streich, the 5th Light
Division's commander, protested this order on the grounds of the state of his vehicles, but Rommel brushed the
objections aside because, in his words, "One cannot permit unique opportunities to slip by for the sake of trifles."[17]
The Italian Commander-in-Chief, General Italo Gariboldi, tried repeatedly to halt Rommel's advance but was unable
to contact him.[18]
After Benghazi had been secured following the British withdrawal, Cyrenaica as far as Gazala was captured by 8
April. This was despite fervent protests from Italian GHQ, which felt Rommel was going beyond his orders,
especially since he was supposedly under Italian command. Rommel had received orders from the German High
Command that he was not to advance past Maradah, but he turned a blind eye to this as well as to protests from some
of his staff and divisional commanders. He believed he was grasping a great possibility to largely destroy the Allied
presence in North Africa and capture Egypt. Rommel decided to keep up the pressure on the retreating British and
7
Erwin Rommel
8
launched an outflanking offensive on the important port of Tobruk[19] during which he managed to capture on 9
April the Military Governor of Cyrenaica, Lieutenant-General Philip Neame as well as O'Connor, who at this time
was his advisor. With Italian forces attacking along the coast, Rommel decided to sweep around to the south and
attack the harbour from the southeast with the 5th Light Division, hoping to trap the bulk of the enemy force there.
This outflanking could not be carried out as rapidly as was necessary owing to logistical problems from lengthening
supply lines and spoiling flank attacks from Tobruk, so Rommel's plan failed. By 11 April the envelopment of
Tobruk was complete and the first attack was launched. Other forces continued pushing east, reaching Bardia and
securing the whole of Libya by 15 April.
Siege of Tobruk
The following siege of Tobruk lasted 240 days, with the garrison
consisting of the Australian 9th Division under Lieutenant General
Leslie Morshead and reinforced by all the British troops who had
withdrawn to the port city, bringing the defenders to a total of 25,000.
Impatient to secure success, Rommel launched repeated small-scale
attacks. These were easily defeated by the defenders. Rommel later
criticised the Italian High Command for failing to provide him with the
blueprints of the port's fortifications (which the Italians had built
before the war), but this was due to his surprising advance so far
beyond the agreed point, hardly allowing them time to produce the
plans. Reflecting on this period, General Heinrich Kirchheim, then
commander of the 5th Light Division, said: "I do not like to be
reminded of that time because so much blood was needlessly shed."
Kirchheim had been reluctant to launch further attacks on Tobruk, as
the costs of earlier assaults had been very high.
1941: British Matilda tanks move forward at
Tobruk.
Rommel remained optimistic that success was imminent. In his memoirs, he claimed that he immediately realised
that the enemy was determined to cling to Tobruk; however, this seems to be in doubt. In a letter to his wife dated 16
April,[20] he wrote that the enemy was already abandoning the town by sea, and he remained confident that the
enemy were not going to defend the town until well into April.[21] In reality, the ships arriving at the port were not
evacuating the defenders but unloading supplies and even some reinforcements. A letter of his written on 21
April,[22] suggests that he was beginning to realise this while the arrival of the Italian blueprints of fortifications
provided further grounds for discouragement. Nonetheless, Rommel continued to insist that success was imminent.
His relations with his subordinate commanders were at their nadir at this point, especially with Streich, who was
openly critical of Rommel's decisions and refused to assume any responsibility for the attacks. Rommel began
holding a series of courts-martial, though ultimately he signed almost none of the verdicts. This state of affairs led
Army Chief Walther von Brauchitsch to write to him that instead of making threats and requesting the replacement
of officers who "hitherto had excelled in battle", rather "... a calm and constructive debate might bring better results."
Rommel remained unmoved.
At this point Rommel requested reinforcements for a renewed attack, but the High Command, then completing
preparations for Operation Barbarossa, could not spare any. When Chief of Staff General Franz Halder also told
Rommel before the latter left for Africa that a larger force could not be logistically sustained, Rommel had
responded "that's your pigeon." Now Halder sarcastically commented: "Now at last he is constrained to state that his
forces are not sufficiently strong to allow him to take full advantage of the 'unique opportunities' offered by the
overall situation. That is the impression we have had for quite some time over here."[23] Angry that his order not to
advance beyond Maradah had been disobeyed and alarmed at mounting losses, Halder, never an admirer of Rommel,
dispatched Friedrich Paulus to (in Halder's words) "head off this soldier gone stark mad."[24]
Erwin Rommel
Upon arrival on 27 April, Paulus was initially persuaded to authorise yet another attack on Tobruk. Back in Berlin,
Halder wrote: "In my view it is a mistake" but deferred to Paulus. When the attack, launched on 4 May, seemed to
turn into a disaster, Paulus intervened and ordered it halted. In addition, he now forbade Rommel from committing
forces in any new attack on Tobruk and further ordered that the attacks were to halt until regrouping was completed.
No new assault was to take place without OKH's specific approval.
Rommel was furious with what he perceived as the lack of fighting spirit in his commanders and Italian allies.
However, on the insistence of Paulus and Halder, he held off further attacks until the detailed plans of the Tobruk
defences could be obtained, the 15th Panzer Division could be brought up to support the attack, and more training of
his troops in positional warfare could be conducted,[22][25] For Streich, however, it was too late. He was transferred
from command of 5th Light Division. When he met Rommel for the last time as he was taking his leave, Rommel
told him that he had been "too concerned for the well-being of your troops"; Streich shot back: "I can recognise no
greater words of praise", and a new quarrel ensued. After the decision was made to hold off attacks on Tobruk for an
indefinite period, Rommel set about creating defensive positions, with Italian infantry forces holding Bardia, the
Sollum–Sidi Omar line and investing Tobruk. The mobile German and Italian formations were held in reserve to
fight any British attacks from Egypt. To this end, Halfaya Pass was secured, the high water mark of Rommel's
offensive. An elaborately prepared great assault was scheduled for 21 November 1941, but this attack never took
place.
Whereas the defenders of Tobruk could be supplied by sea, the logistical problems of the Afrika Korps greatly
hampered its operations, and a concentrated counterattack southwards by the besieged Allies might have succeeded
in reaching El Adam and severing the lines of communication and supply of the Axis forces at Bardia, Sollum and
Halfya covering the Egyptian border. General Morshead, however, was misled by intelligence overestimates of the
German forces investing Tobruk, and so no major action was attempted.
General Wavell made two unsuccessful attempts to relieve Tobruk (Operation Brevity (launched on 15 May 1941)
and Operation Battleaxe (launched on 15 June 1941). Both operations were easily defeated, as they were hastily
prepared, partly owing to Churchill's impatience for speedy action. During Brevity the important Halfaya Pass was
briefly recaptured by the British but was lost again on 27 May. Battleaxe resulted in the loss of 87 British for 25
German tanks in a four-day battle raging on the flanks of the Sollum and Halfaya Passes, with the British being
unable to take these well-fortified positions.[26]
In August, Rommel was appointed commander of the newly created Panzer Group Africa. His previous command,
the Afrika Korps, comprising the 15th Panzer Division and the 5th Light Division, which by then had been
redesignated 21st Panzer Division, was put under command of Generalleutnant Ludwig Crüwell, with Fritz
Bayerlein as chief of staff. In addition to the Afrika Korps, Rommel's Panzer Group had the 90th Light Division and
six Italian divisions, the Ariete and Trieste Divisions forming the Italian XX Motorized Corps, three infantry
divisions investing Tobruk, and one holding Bardia.
9
Erwin Rommel
10
Operation Crusader
Allied counter offensive
Following the costly failure of Battleaxe, Wavell was replaced by the
Commander-in-Chief of India, General Claude Auchinleck. Allied
forces were reorganised and strengthened to two corps, XXX and XIII,
and became the British Eighth Army under the command of Alan
Cunningham. Auchinleck, having 770 tanks and 1,000 aircraft to
support him, launched a major offensive to relieve Tobruk (Operation
Crusader) on 18 November 1941. Rommel had two armoured
divisions, the 15th and 21st with a total of 260 tanks, the 90th Light
Infantry division, and three Italian corps, five infantry and one
armoured division with 154 tanks, with which to oppose him.
Rommel conversing with his staff near El
Agheila, 12 January 1942.
The Eighth Army deeply outflanked the German defences along the
Egyptian frontier with a left hook through the desert, and reached a position from which they could strike at both
Tobruk and the coastal road, the "Via Balbia". Auchinleck planned to engage the Afrika Korps with his armoured
division, while XXX Corps assaulted the Italian positions at Bardia, encircling the troops there. But the British
operational plan had one major flaw. When XXX corps reached the area of Qabr Salih, it was assumed that the
Afrika Korps would attack eastward, allowing the British to surround them with a southerly armour thrust. Rommel,
however, did not find it necessary to do as the British planned, and instead attacked the southernly armoured thrust at
Sidi Rezegh.[27]
Rommel was now faced with the decision of whether to continue the planned attack on Tobruk in late May, trusting
his screening forces to hold off the advancing British, or to reorient his forces to hit the approaching British columns.
He decided the risks were too great and called off the attack on Tobruk.[28]
The British armoured thrusts were largely defeated by fierce
resistance from antitank positions and tanks. The Italian Ariete
Armoured Division was forced to give ground while inflicting
heavy losses on the advancing British at Bir el Gobi, whereas the
21st Panzer Division checked the attack launched against them and
counterattacked on Gabr Saleh.[29] Over the next two days the
British continued pressing their attack, sending their armoured
brigades into battle in a piecemeal fashion,[30] while Rommel,
aware of his numerical inferiority, launched a concentrated attack
on 23 November with all his armour. The 21st Panzer Division
held their defensive positions at Sidi Rezegh, while 15th Panzer
Division and the Italian Ariete Division attacked the flanks and
enveloped the British armour. During this battle, among the
biggest armoured battles of the North African campaign, the
British tanks were surrounded, with about two-thirds destroyed
and the survivors having to fight themselves out of the trap and
head south to Gabr Saleh.[31]
Portrait of Rommel (June 1942)
Rommel's counterattacks
Erwin Rommel
On 24 November Rommel, wanting to exploit the halt of the British offensive, counterattacked into the British rear
areas in Egypt with the intention of exploiting the disorganisation and confusion in the enemy's bases and cutting
their supply lines. Rommel considered the other, more conservative, course of action of destroying the British forces
halted before Tobruk and Bardia too time consuming.[32] Rommel knew his forces were incapable of driving such an
effort home, but believed that the British, traumatised by their recent debacle, would abandon their defences along
the border at the appearance of a German threat to their rear.[33]
General Cunningham did, as Rommel had hoped, decide to withdraw the Eighth Army to Egypt, but Auchinleck
arrived from Cairo just in time to cancel the withdrawal orders.[34] The German attack, which began with only 100
operational tanks remaining,[35] stalled as it outran its supplies and met stiffening resistance. The counterattack was
criticised by the German High Command and some of his staff officers as too dangerous with Commonwealth forces
still operating along the coast east of Tobruk, and a wasteful attack as it bled his forces, in particular his remaining
tank force. Among the Staff officers who were critical was Friedrich von Mellenthin, who said that "Unfortunately,
Rommel overestimated his success and believed the moment had come to launch a general pursuit."[35] To Rommel's
credit, the attack very nearly succeeded: only Auchinleck's timely intervention prevented Cunningham from
withdrawing.[34]
Tobruk relieved, Axis retirement to El Agheila
While Rommel drove into Egypt, the remaining Commonwealth forces east of Tobruk threatened the weak Axis
lines there. Unable to reach Rommel for several days,[36] Rommel's Chief of Staff, Oberstleutnant Westphal, ordered
the 21st Panzer Division withdrawn to support the siege of Tobruk. On 27 November the British attack on Tobruk
linked up with the defenders, and Rommel, having suffered losses that could not easily be replaced, had to
concentrate on retrieving and regrouping the divisions that had attacked into Egypt. By 6 December the Afrika Korps
had averted the danger, and on 7 December Rommel fell back to a defensive line at Gazala, just west of Tobruk, all
the while under heavy attacks from the RAF. The Italian forces at Bardia and on the Egyptian border were now cut
off from the retreating Axis. The Allies, briefly held up at Gazala, kept up the pressure to some degree, although they
were almost as exhausted and disorganised as Rommel's force,[37] and Rommel was forced to retreat all the way back
to the starting positions he had held in March, reaching El Agheila on 30 December. His main concern during his
withdrawal was being flanked to the south, so the Afrika Korps held the south flank during the retreat. The Allies
followed, but never attempted a southern flanking move to cut off the retreating troops as they had done in 1940. The
German-Italian garrison at Bardia surrendered on 2 January 1942.
Recapture of Gazala
On 5 January 1942 the Afrika Korps received 55 tanks and new supplies and Rommel started planning a
counterattack. On 21 January the attack was launched, which mauled the Allied forces, costing them some 110 tanks
and other heavy equipment. The Axis forces retook Benghazi on 29 January, Timimi on 3 February, and the Allies
pulled back to the Tobruk area and commenced building defensive positions at Gazala.
During the confusion caused by the Crusader operation, Rommel and his staff found themselves behind Allied lines
several times. On one occasion, he visited a New Zealand Army field hospital that was still under Allied control.
"[Rommel] inquired if anything was needed, promised the British [sic] medical supplies and drove off
unhindered."[38] Eventually, Rommel did supply the medical unit with some medical equipment.
Second German offensive: Battle of Gazala
Following General Kesselring's successes in creating local air superiority and suppressing the Malta defenders in
April 1942, an increased flow of vital supplies reached the Panzer Armee Afrika. Previously it had been receiving
about a third of its needed supplies for several months. With his forces thus strengthened, Rommel began planning a
major push for the summer. He felt the very strong British positions around Gazala could be outflanked, and he
could then drive up behind them and destroy them.[39] The British were planning a summer offensive of their own
11
Erwin Rommel
12
and their dispositions were more suited for an attack rather than a defence.
Rommel in North Africa (June 1942)
The British had 900 tanks in the area, 200 of which were new Grant
tanks, whereas Rommel's Panzer Army Africa commanded a mere 320
German, 50 of which were the obsolete Panzer II model, and 240
Italian tanks, which were no better than the Panzer IIs.[40] Therefore
Rommel had to rely predominantly on 88 mm guns to destroy the
British heavy tanks, but even these were in short supply. In infantry
and artillery Rommel found himself vastly outnumbered also, with
many of his units under-strength following the campaigns of 1941. In
contrast to the previous year, the Axis had more-or-less air parity.
On 26 May 1942 Rommel's army attacked in a classic outflanking Blitzkrieg operation in the Battle of Gazala. His
Italian infantry assaulted the Gazala fortifications head on, with some armour attached to give the impressions that
this was the main assault, while all his motorized and armoured forces outflanked the positions to the south. On the
following morning Rommel cut through the flank and attacked north, but throughout the day a running armour battle
occurred, where both sides took heavy losses. The attempted encirclement of the Gazala position failed and the
Germans lost a third of their heavy tanks. Renewing the attack on the morning of 28 May, Rommel concentrated on
encircling and destroying separate units of the British armour. Heavy British counterattacks forced Rommel to
assume a defensive posture and not pursue his original plan of a dash north for the coast. On 30 May he attacked
eastwards to link with elements of Italian X Corps which had cleared a path through the Allied minefields to
establish a line of supply. On 2 June 90th Light Division and the Trieste Division surrounded and reduced the Allied
strongpoint at Bir Hakeim, capturing it on 11 June. With his communications and the southern strongpoint of the
British line thus secured, Rommel attacked north again, forcing the British back, relying on the minefields of the
Gazala lines to protect his left flank.[41] On 14 June the British began a headlong retreat eastwards, the so-called
"Gazala Gallop", to avoid being completely cut off.
On 15 June Axis forces reached the coast eliminating any escape for the Commonwealth forces still occupying the
Gazala positions. With this task completed, Rommel set off in pursuit of the retreating Allied formations, aiming to
capture Tobruk while the enemy was confused and disorganised.[42] Tobruk, isolated and alone, was now all that
stood between the Axis and Egypt. The defenders were the 2nd South African Infantry Division and some
disorganised units recovering from the Gazala battle. On 21 June, after a swift, coordinated and fierce combined
arms assault, the city surrendered along with its 33,000 defenders, including most of the South African 2nd Division.
Only at the fall of Singapore, earlier that year, had more British Commonwealth troops been captured. Hitler made
Rommel a Field Marshal for this victory.[43]
By this time, Rommel's gains caused considerable alarm in the Allied camp. He appeared to be poised to deliver a
crippling blow to the British by conquering Egypt. The Allies feared Rommel would then turn northeastward to
conquer the valuable oil fields of the Middle East and then link up with the German forces besieging the equally
valuable Caucasian oil fields. However, these required substantial reinforcements that Hitler refused to allocate.
Ironically, Hitler had been sceptical about sending Rommel to Africa in the first place. He'd only done so after
constant begging by naval commander Erich Raeder, and even then only to relieve the Italians. Hitler never
understood global warfare, despite Raeder and Rommel's attempts to get him to see the strategic value of Egypt.[44]
Erwin Rommel
13
Drive for Egypt
Rommel determined to press the attack on Mersa Matruh despite the heavy losses
he had suffered at Gazala and Tobruk. He also wanted to prevent the British from
establishing a new frontline, and felt the weakness of the British formations had
to be exploited by a thrust into Egypt.[45] This decision met with some criticism,
as an advance into Egypt meant a significant lengthening of the supply lines.[46]
It also meant that a proposed attack on Malta would have to wait, as the
Luftwaffe would be required to support Rommel's drive eastwards. Kesselring
strongly disagreed with Rommel's decision, and went as far as threatening to
withdraw his aircraft to Sicily.[47] Hitler agreed to Rommel's plan, despite protest
from Italian HQ and some of his staff officers, seeing the potential for a complete
victory in Africa.[48] Rommel, apparently aware of his growing reputation as a
gambler, defended his decision by claiming that merely to hold the lines at
Sollum would confer upon the British a distinct advantage, in that they could
more easily outflank the positions at Sollum and the overseas supply lines would
still have to be routed via Tripoli unless he secured a front further east.[49]
Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, with
his aides during the desert campaign.
1942
On 22 June Rommel continued his offensive eastwards and initially little resistance was encountered. Apart from
fuel shortages, the advance continued until Mersa Matruh was encircled on 26 June, surrounding four infantry
divisions. One of the divisions managed to break out during the night, and over the next two days some elements of
the remaining three divisions also slipped away. The fortress fell on 29 June, yielding enormous amounts of supplies
and equipment, in addition to 6,000 POWs.[50]
On 25 June Auchinleck had assumed direct command of Eighth Army and decided to form his main defensive line at
El Alamein, where the proximity to the south of the Qattara Depression created a relatively short line to defend
which could not be outflanked to the south because of the impossibility of moving armour into and through the
depression. Rommel continued his march eastwards, but with the supply situation steadily worsening and his men
exhausted after five weeks of constant warfare, the offensive on El Alamein seemed in doubt. On 1 July the First
Battle of El Alamein started, but after almost a month of inconclusive fighting both sides, completely exhausted, dug
in, halting Rommel's drive eastwards. This was a serious blow to Rommel who had hoped to drive his advance into
the open desert beyond El Alamein where he could conduct a mobile defence.[51]
More significantly, Rommel only had 13 operational tanks by the time he reached El Alamein. Although he was only
a few hundred miles from the Pyramids, he knew he didn't have the resources to push forward. On 3 July, he wrote in
his diary that his momentum had "faded away."[44]
Allied attack: Second Battle of El Alamein
Summer standoff
After the stalemate at El Alamein, Rommel hoped to go on the offensive again before massive amounts of men and
material could reach the British Eighth Army. Allied forces from Malta were, however, intercepting his supplies at
sea and the Desert Air Force kept up a relentless campaign against Axis supply vessels in Tobruk, Bardia and Mersa
Matruh. Most of the supplies reaching the Axis troops still had to be landed at Benghazi and Tripoli, and the
enormous distances supplies had to travel to reach the forward troops meant that a rapid resupply and reorganisation
of the Axis army could not be done. Further hampering Rommel's plans was the fact that the Italian divisions
received priority on supplies, with the Italian authorities shipping material for the Italian formations at a much higher
rate than for German formations.[52] It seems the Italian HQ was uneasy with Rommel's ambitions and wanted their
own forces, whom they at least had some control over, resupplied first.[53]
Erwin Rommel
The British, themselves preparing for a renewed drive, replaced C-in-C Auchinleck with General Harold Alexander.
The Eighth Army also got a new commander, Bernard Montgomery. They received a steady stream of supplies and
were able to reorganise their forces. In late August they received a large convoy carrying over 100,000 tons of
supplies, and Rommel, learning of this, felt that time was running out. Rommel decided to launch an attack with the
15th and 21st Panzer Division, 90th Light Division, and the Italian XX Motorized Corps in a drive through the
southern flank of the El Alamein lines. The terrain here was without any easily defensible features and so open to
attack. Montgomery and Auchinleck before him had realised this threat, and the main defences for this sector had
been set up behind the El Alamein line along the Alam El Halfa Ridge, where any outflanking thrust could be more
easily met from overlooking defensive positions.
Battle of Alam El Halfa
The Battle of Alam el Halfa was launched on 30 August, with Rommel's forces driving through the south flank.
After passing the El Alamein line to the south, Rommel drove north at the Alam el Halfa Ridge, just as Montgomery
had anticipated. Under heavy fire from British artillery and aircraft, and in the face of well prepared positions that
Rommel could not hope to outflank due to lack of fuel, the attack stalled. By 2 September, Rommel realized the
battle was unwinnable, and decided to withdraw.[54]
Montgomery had prepared to pursue the Germans but in the afternoon of 2 September, he gave Corps commander
Brian Horrocks clear orders to allow the enemy to retire. This was for two reasons: to preserve his own strength and
to allow the enemy to observe, and be misled by, the dummy preparations for an attack in the area.[55] Nevertheless,
Montgomery was keen to inflict casualties on the enemy and orders were given for the as yet inexperienced 2nd New
Zealand Division, positioned to the north of the retreating Axis forces, and 7th Armoured Division to attack on 3
September. The attack was repelled, however, by a fierce rearguard action by the 90th Light Division and
Montgomery called off further action to preserve his strength.[56] On 5 September Rommel was back where he had
started, with only heavy losses to show for it. Rommel had suffered 2,940 casualties, lost 50 tanks, a similar number
of guns and, perhaps worst of all, 400 trucks, vital for supplies and movement. The British losses, except tank losses
of 68, were much less, further adding to the numerical inferiority of Panzer Army Afrika. The Desert Air Force
inflicted the highest proportions of damage to Rommel's forces. He now realized the war in Africa was unwinnable
without more air support which was impossible since the Luftwaffe was already stretched to breaking point on other
fronts.[57]
Second Battle of El Alamein
In September British raiding parties attacked important harbours and
supply points. The flow of supplies successfully ferried across the
Mediterranean had fallen to a dismal level. Some two-thirds of the
supplies embarked for Africa were destroyed at sea. In addition,
Rommel's health was failing and he took sick leave in Italy and
Germany from late September. Thus he was not present when the
Second
Battle of El Alamein began on 23 October 1942. Although he
El Alamein 1942: Destroyed Panzer IIIs near Tel
el Eisa
returned immediately, it took him two vital days to reach his HQ in
Africa. The defensive plan at El Alamein was more static in nature
than Rommel preferred, but with shortages of motorized units and fuel, he had felt it was the only possible plan.[58]
The defensive line had strong fortifications and was protected with a large minefield which in turn was covered with
machine guns and artillery. This, Rommel hoped, would allow his infantry to hold the line at any point until
motorized and armoured units in reserve could move up and counterattack any Allied breaches.[59]
General Georg Stumme was in command in Rommel's absence but during the initial fighting he died of a heart
attack. This paralyzed the German HQ until General Ritter von Thoma took command. After returning, Rommel
14
Erwin Rommel
learned that the fuel supply situation, critical when he left in September, was now disastrous.[60] Counterattacks by
the 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions on 24 and 25 October had incurred heavy tank losses due to the intensity of the
British artillery and air attack. Rommel's main concern was to counterattack in full force and throw the British out of
the defensive lines, which was in his view the only chance the Axis had of avoiding defeat.[61] The counterattack was
launched early on 26 October but the British units that had penetrated the defensive line inflicted heavy losses on
Rommel's armour at the position code-named Snipe (often mis-named Kidney Ridge due to faulty interpretation of
the ring contour – it was actually a depression). The Allies continued pushing hard with armoured units to force the
breakthrough, but the defenders' fire destroyed many tanks, leading to doubts among the officers in the British
armoured brigades about the chances of clearing a breach.[62]
Montgomery, seeing his armoured brigades losing tanks at an alarming rate, stopped major attacks until 2 November
when he launched Operation Supercharge and achieved a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) penetration of the line. Rommel
immediately counterattacked with what tanks he had available in an attempt to encircle the pocket during 2
November, but the heavy Allied fire stopped the attempt. By this time Panzer Army Africa had only one-third of its
initial strength remaining, with only 35 tanks left operational, virtually no fuel or ammunition and with the British in
complete command of the air.[63]
Rommel's retreat
On 3 November Montgomery found it impossible to renew his attack, and he had to wait for more reinforcements to
be brought up. This lull was what Rommel needed for his withdrawal, which had been planned since 29 October,
when he had determined the situation hopeless.[63] At midday, however, Rommel received the infamous "victory or
death" stand-fast order from Hitler. Although this order demanded the impossible and virtually ensured the
destruction of Panzer Army Africa, Rommel could not bring himself to disobey a direct order from his Führer. The
Axis forces held on desperately.[64]
On 4 November Montgomery renewed the attack with fresh forces, and with almost 500 tanks against the 20 or so
remaining to Rommel. By midday the Italian XX Motorized Corps was surrounded, and several hours later was
completely destroyed. This left a 20 km gap in Rommel's line, with British armoured and motorized units pouring
through, threatening the entire Panzer Army Africa with encirclement. At this point Rommel could no longer uphold
the no-retreat order and ordered a general retreat. Early on 5 November he received authorization by Hitler to
withdraw, 12 hours after his decision to do so—but it was far too late, with only remnants of his army streaming
westward. Most of his unmotorized forces (the bulk of the army) were caught.[65]
Part of the Panzer Army Africa escaped from El Alamein, but this remnant took heavy losses from constant air
attacks. Despite urgings from Hitler and Mussolini, the Panzer Army did not turn to fight, except for brief holding
actions, but withdrew under Allied pressure all the way to Tunisia. However, the retreat was conducted most
skillfully, employing scorched earth tactics and leaving behind booby traps, making the task of the pursuers very
difficult. The Allied forces had great numerical superiority and air supremacy, while most of Rommel's remaining
divisions were reduced to combat groups.[66]
15
Erwin Rommel
End of Africa campaigns
Having reached Tunisia, Rommel launched an attack against the U.S.
II Corps which was threatening to cut his lines of supply north to
Tunis. Rommel inflicted a sharp defeat on the American forces at the
Kasserine Pass in February.
Rommel immediately turned back against the British forces, occupying
the Mareth Line (old French defences on the Libyan border). But
Rommel could only delay the inevitable. At the end of January 1943,
the Italian General Giovanni Messe had been appointed the new
Tunisia—Rommel talks with German troops who
commander of Rommel's Panzer Army Africa while Rommel had been
are using a captured American half-track
at Kasserine, which was renamed the Italo-German Panzer Army (in
recognition of the fact that it consisted of one German and three Italian
corps). Though Messe replaced Rommel, he diplomatically deferred to him, and the two coexisted in what was
theoretically the same command. On 23 February Armeegruppe Afrika was created with Rommel in command. It
included the Italo-German Panzer Army under Messe (renamed 1st Italian Army) and the German 5th Panzer Army
in the north of Tunisia under General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim.
The last Rommel offensive in North Africa was on 6 March 1943, when he attacked Eighth Army at the Battle of
Medenine. The attack was made with 10th, 15th, and 21st Panzer Divisions. Warned by Ultra intercepts,
Montgomery deployed large numbers of anti-tank guns in the path of the offensive. After losing 52 tanks, Rommel
called off the assault. On 9 March he handed over command of Armeegruppe Afrika to General Hans-Jürgen von
Arnim and left Africa, because of health reasons, never to return. On 13 May 1943, General Messe surrendered the
remnants of Armeegruppe Afrika to the Allies.
Some historians contrast Rommel's withdrawal to Tunisia against Hitler's wishes with Friedrich Paulus's obedience
of orders to have the German Sixth Army stand its ground at the Battle of Stalingrad which resulted in its
annihilation. Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, appointed overall Axis commander in North Africa, saw things
differently. He believed the withdrawals, some of which were carried out against his orders, unnecessary and ruinous
since they brought forward British airfields ever closer to the port of Tunis. As far as he was concerned, Rommel
was an insubordinate defeatist and string-puller. The increasingly acrimonious relations between the two did nothing
to enhance performance.
Role of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) in North Africa
Axis
The Axis had some major SIGINT successes in North Africa. They intercepted the reports of the U.S. military
attaché in Egypt, who was briefed by the British on their forces and plans.[67] Some authorities believe this
information explains much of Rommel's success.
In addition, the Afrika Korps had a Radio Intercept Section (RIS) attached to its HQ. The RIS monitored radio
communications among British units. The British were very "gabby" and most of this chatter was in clear, that is,
uncoded, allowing the Germans to more easily identify British units and deployments. During the first Battle of El
Alamein, a British counter-attack reached the German HQ. The RIS was wiped out in the fighting and many of their
files captured. This alerted the British to the problem, and they tightened up on radio chatter. The loss of this
resource is considered an important factor in Rommel's later lack of success.[68]
16
Erwin Rommel
17
Allies
Allied codebreakers read much enciphered German message traffic, especially that encrypted with the Enigma
machine. This Ultra intelligence included daily reports from Africa on the numbers and condition of Axis forces. It
also included information about Axis supply shipments across the Mediterranean. This information enabled the weak
Allied air and naval forces there to intercept and destroy much of these shipments. To protect the source of the
intelligence (ULTRA), Allied air and naval forces were forbidden to destroy the convoys carrying war supplies to
North Africa until a flyover to "discover" the convoy was arranged and completed.
France 1943–1944
The inglorious end of the North African campaign meshed poorly with the Nazi
propaganda machine's relentless portrayal of Rommel as an unbeatable military
genius. This opened in Berlin the awkward question of precisely what use now to
make of the erstwhile Desert Fox. Back in Germany, he was for some time
virtually "unemployed". On 23 July 1943 he moved to Greece as commander of
Army Group E to defend the Greek coast against a possible Allied landing that
never happened, and which the Germans were led to expect due to the elaborate
British deception plan known as "Operation Mincemeat"—only to return to
Germany two days later upon the overthrow of Mussolini. On 17 August 1943
Rommel moved his headquarters from Munich to Lake Garda as commander of a
new Army Group B created to defend northern Italy.
Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel
in December 1943.
After Hitler gave Kesselring sole Italian command, on 21 November,
Rommel moved Army Group B to Normandy in France with
responsibility for defending the French coast against the long
anticipated Allied invasion. He was dismayed by the lack of completed
works and the slow building pace and feared he had just months before
an invasion. Rommel reinvigorated the fortification effort along the
Atlantic coast. The Commander-in-Chief West, Gerd von Rundstedt,
expected the Allies to invade in the Pas-de-Calais because it was the
shortest crossing point from Britain, its port facilities were essential to
Rommel inspecting the Indian Legion, February
1944.
supplying a large invasion force, and the distance from Calais to
Germany was relatively short. Hitler's HQ, although agreeing with this
assessment, also considered a landing at Normandy as a possibility.[69] Rommel, believing that Normandy was
indeed a likely landing ground, argued that it did not matter to the Allies where they landed, just that the landing was
successful.[70] He therefore toured the Normandy defenses extensively in January and February 1944. He ordered
millions of mines laid and thousands of tank traps and obstacles set up on beaches and throughout the countryside,
including in fields suitable for glider aircraft landings, the so-called Rommelspargel ("Rommel's asparagus").[71]
After his experience with Allied air superiority at the end of the North Africa campaign, Rommel concluded that
future Allied offensives would also enjoy overwhelming Allied air superiority, exposing any German armoured
counter movements to severe punishment from above. He argued that the tank forces should be dispersed in small
units and kept in heavily fortified positions as close to the front as possible. In doing so they would not have to move
far and en masse when the invasion started.[72] He felt their best chance was to confront the invading force
immediately and drive it into the sea. However, von Rundstedt felt that there was no way to stop the invasion near
Erwin Rommel
18
the beaches due to the equally overwhelming firepower of the Allied navies. He felt the German armour should be
held in reserve well inland near Paris where they could be used to counter attack in force in a more traditional
military doctrine. The allies could even be allowed to extend themselves deep into France, exposing their flanks for a
pincer movement to cut off the supplies and retreat of the Allied troops. This notion of defending France was
supported by other officers, most notably Heinz Guderian and Panzer Group West commander Geyr von
Schweppenburg, who strongly disagreed with Rommel and wanted the armour placed far inland.
When asked to pick a plan, Hitler vacillated. In late April, he ordered them
placed in the middle, far enough inland to be useless to Rommel but not far
enough for von Rundstedt.[73] Rommel did move some of the armoured
formations under his command as far forward as possible, ordering General Erich
Marcks, commanding the 84th Corps defending the Normandy section, to move
his reserves into the frontline.
The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for D-Day (see Operation Fortitude),
giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais. Although Hitler
himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most
Wehrmacht commanders in France also started believing in a Pas-de-Calais
landing.[74] Rommel concentrated fortification building in the River Somme
estuary and let the work in Normandy lag. By D-Day on 6 June 1944 virtually all
German officers, including Hitler's staff, firmly believed that Pas-de-Calais was
going to be the invasion site.[75]
Generalfeldmarschalls Gerd von
Rundstedt and Erwin Rommel
meeting at the Hotel "George V" in
Paris
During the confusing opening hours of D-Day, the German command structure in
France was in disarray. Rommel, and several other important officers were on
leave.[76] Several tank units, notably the 12th SS Panzer Division and Panzer-Lehr-Division, were close enough to
the beaches to create serious havoc. The absence of Rommel and continued confusion in the army and theater HQs
led to hesitation in releasing the armoured reserves to Normandy when they might be needed to meet a second
invasion further north. Facing only small-scale German attacks, the Allies quickly secured a beachhead. Rommel
personally oversaw the bitter fighting around Caen where only the determined defence of Kampfgruppe von Luck
prevented a British breakout on the first day. Here, again, the on-site commanders were denied freedom of action and
the Germans did not launch a concentrated counterattack until mid-day on 6 June.
The Allies pushed ashore and expanded their beachhead despite the best efforts of Rommel's troops. By mid-July the
German position was crumbling. Rommel may have attempted to secretly negotiate a truce on the western front, in
which German forces would retreat to the Siegfried Line and the Allies would cease their strategic bombing
campaign.[77] On 17 July 1944, he was being driven along a French road near the front in his staff car. According to
a widely accepted version of events, an RCAF Spitfire of 412 Squadron piloted by Charley Fox strafed the car near
Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery and Rommel was injured.[78] He was hospitalised with major head injuries. In a
different version, a patrol of 602 Squadron led by Chris Le Roux carried out the attack.[79] A third version by
Australian Fred Cowlph of 453 Squadron claimed the strafing attack, asserting that his guns camera verified this. He
recorded this action in his aircraft log book.
Erwin Rommel
19
Plot against Hitler
There had always been opposition to Hitler in conservative circles and in the Army, the Schwarze Kapelle (Black
Orchestra), but Hitler's dazzling successes in 1938–1941 had stifled it. However, after the Soviet campaign failed,
and the Axis suffered more defeats, this opposition underwent a revival.
Early in 1944, three of Rommel's closest friends—the Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart, Karl Strölin (who had served
with Rommel in the First World War), Alexander von Falkenhausen, and Carl Heinrich von Stülpnagel—began
efforts to bring Rommel into the conspiracy. They felt that as by far the most popular officer in Germany, he would
lend their cause badly needed credibility with the populace. Additionally, the conspirators felt they needed the
support of a field marshal on active duty. Erwin von Witzleben, who would have become commander-in-chief of the
Wehrmacht if Hitler had been overthrown, was a field marshal, but had not been on active duty since 1942.
Sometime in February, Rommel agreed to lend his support to the conspiracy in order to, as he put it, "come to the
rescue of Germany."[44]
Rommel, however, opposed assassinating Hitler. After the war, his widow—among others—maintained that
Rommel believed an assassination attempt would spark civil war in Germany and Austria and Hitler would have
become a martyr for a lasting cause.[80] Instead, Rommel insisted that Hitler be arrested and brought to trial for his
crimes. After the failed bomb attack of 20 July, many conspirators were arrested and the dragnet expanded to anyone
even suspected of participating. It did not take long for Rommel's involvement to come to light. His name was first
mentioned when Stülpnagel blurted it out after a botched suicide attempt. Later, another conspirator, Caesar von
Hofacker, admitted under particularly severe Gestapo torture that Rommel was actively involved.[44]
Additionally, Carl Goerdeler, the main civilian leader of the Resistance, wrote on several letters and other documents
that Rommel was a potential supporter and an acceptable military leader to be placed in a position of responsibility
should their coup succeed. Nazi party officials in France reported that Rommel extensively and scornfully criticised
Nazi incompetence and crimes.
Rommel's death
The "Court of Military Honour"—a drumhead court-martial convened to decide
the fate of officers involved in the conspiracy—included two men with whom
Rommel had crossed swords before: Heinz Guderian and Gerd von Rundstedt.
The Court decided that Rommel should be expelled from the Army in disgrace
and brought before Roland Freisler's People's Court, a kangaroo court that
always decided in favour of the prosecution. However, Hitler knew that having
Rommel branded as a traitor would severely damage morale on the home front.
He and Wilhelm Keitel thus decided to offer Rommel a chance to commit
suicide.[44]
Rommel was approached at his home by Wilhelm Burgdorf and Ernst Maisel,
two generals from Hitler's headquarters, on 14 October 1944. Burgdorf informed
him of the charges and offered him a choice: he could face the People's Court or
choose to commit suicide quietly. In the former case, his staff would have been
arrested and his family would suffer even before the all-but-certain conviction
and execution. In the latter case, the government would assure his family full
pension payments and a state funeral claiming he had died a hero. Burgdorf had brought a capsule of cyanide for the
occasion. After a few minutes alone, Rommel announced that he chose to end his own life and explained his decision
to his wife and son. Carrying his field marshal's baton, Rommel went to Burgdorf's Opel, driven by SS Master
A memorial at the site of Field
Marshal Erwin Rommel's suicide
outside of the town of Herrlingen,
Baden-Württemberg, Germany (west
of Ulm).
Sergeant Heinrich Doose, and was driven out of the village. Doose walked away from the car leaving Rommel with
Maisel. Five minutes later Burgdorf gestured to the two men to return to the car, and Doose noticed that Rommel
Erwin Rommel
was slumped over, after taking the cyanide pill. Doose, while sobbing, replaced Rommel's fallen cap on his head.
Ten minutes later the group phoned Rommel's wife to inform her that Rommel was dead.[81][82]
After the war, an edited version of his diary was published as The
Rommel Papers. He is the only member of the Third Reich
establishment to have a museum dedicated to him. His grave can be
found in Herrlingen, a short distance west of Ulm.
The official story of Rommel's death, as initially reported to the
general public, stated that Rommel had either suffered a heart attack[83]
or succumbed to his injuries[84] from the earlier strafing of his staff car.
To further strengthen the story, Hitler ordered an official day of
mourning in commemoration and Rommel was buried with full
Rommel's grave
military honours. Hitler sent Field Marshal von Rundstedt as his
representative at Rommel's funeral. Rommel had specified that no
political paraphernalia were to be displayed on his corpse, but the Nazis made sure he was fully festooned with
swastikas. The truth behind Rommel's death did not come out until Keitel testified about it during the Nuremberg
Trials.[85]
Rommel's style as military commander
Logistics and strategy
Rommel was a skilled tactician, but some allege that he had little sense of logistics or military strategy.[86] They
consider as an example of this his proposal to postpone Operation Herkules, the invasion of Malta in favour of the
immediate advance to the Suez Canal, which would cut the island off from the western Mediterranean. In the event,
the operation did not take place, and he ran out of supplies in Egypt, principally because Malta-based forces were
sinking Axis supply ships. Those that allege that Rommel had little sense of logistics think that his eagerness to drive
for Egypt, when the necessary logistical support was lacking, meant that these drives ultimately failed with great
losses.
In his analysis of the logistical aspects of the North African Campaign, military historian Martin van Creveld wrote:
Given that the Wehrmacht was only partly motorized and unsupported by a really strong motor industry;
that the political situation necessitated the carrying of much useless Italian ballast; that the capacity of
the Libyan ports was so small, the distances to be mastered so vast; it seems clear that, for all of
Rommel's tactical brilliance, the problem of supplying an Axis force for an advance into the Middle East
was insoluble. ... Rommel's repeated defiance of his orders and attempts to advance beyond a reasonable
distance from his bases, however, was mistaken and should never have been tolerated.[87]
Personality
Contemporaries who had to work with him under adversity often had very few kind words to say about him and his
abilities. Following Paulus' return from his inspection of Rommel's doings in North Africa and also considering the
reports submitted by Alfred Gause, Halder concluded: "Rommel's character defects make him very hard to get along
with but no one cares to come out in open opposition because of his brutality and the backing he has at top level."
Others mentioned his leadership style, which expected much of his commanders, while not being open to criticism or
objections.[17] He had little patience for sub-commanders who did not do their jobs properly. Only three weeks after
assuming command of the 7th Panzer Division in February 1940, Rommel found a battalion commander performing
below par and had the man relieved of command and sent on his way in 90 minutes.[88] This management style
would certainly send a signal that he demanded the utmost of his men, but it was bound to create a feeling of
20
Erwin Rommel
resentment among some of his officers.[89]
F. W. von Mellenthin, who served on Rommel's staff during the Africa campaign, wrote that Rommel took great
chances on several occasions, gambling entire battles on decisions made almost on the spur of the moment and with
incomplete information. He cited Rommel's counterattack during Operation Crusader as just one such instance.[35]
Others who served under him in Africa, most notably General Fritz Bayerlein, said he took risks but only after
carefully weighing the potential dangers and rewards.[90] Rommel himself was aware of his growing reputation as a
gambler and added careful notes in his papers explaining and defending his actions, especially concerning his
decision to drive into Egypt during the 1942 Summer Offensive.[49][91]
While some aggressive subordinates, like Hans von Luck, praised his leadership from the front,[7] Mellenthin
questioned this leadership style as it often led to disinvolvement of his staff officers in the fight instead of their
maintaining an overview of the situation. His consequential long absences from HQ also meant that subordinates had
to make decisions without consulting Rommel, leading to confusion.[92]
Relations with the Italians
Rommel's relations with the Italian High Command in North Africa were in the worst possible terms. That is hardly
surprising, as Rommel was nominally subordinate to the Italians for much of the campaign but was also direct
commander of the DAK, by far the strongest component of the Axis forces, and enjoyed direct access and the
strongest relationships with the highest German political authority. This allowed him to ignore blatantly any sort of
order or even simple advice coming from his Italian counterparts, and Rommel's abrasive and often impolite manners
did nothing to smoothe the resentment that this perceived insubordination and lack of respect generated in his Italian
allies.[93][94]
The belated expedient to nominate Field Marshall Kesselring as Supreme Commander Mediterranean, to act as a
buffer between Rommel and the Italians, failed miserably, as Rommel quite simply ignored Kesselring exactly as he
ignored the Italians.[95]
Besides Rommel's frequent insubordination, there were also strong professional points of disagreements, mostly
related to the handling of logistical parts of the campaign. While certainly much less proficient than Rommel in their
tactical outlook and mobile warfare skills, the Italian commanders were competent "old school" professionals, with
full staff training and a sound grasp of logistics and artillery doctrine, which were among Rommel's weaker points.
As such the Italian commanders were repeatedly at odds with Rommel, particularly when their conservative
logistical calculations – regularly ignored by Rommel – were actually confirmed as accurate, leaving the Axis forces
stranded in exposed position from where the Italians – with their puny motorized resources – were much less able
than the Germans to extricate themselves.[96]
This generated a widespread lack of respect among the Italian commanders for Rommel's professional skills in
anything but tactical situations, and further ruined any possibility of implementing good working relations. This lack
of trust reached its peak during the retreat up to Tunisia after the El Alamein battle, when an utterly spent and
dispirited Rommel eluded all requests and by the Italians to stand up and attempt to fight in defence of Libya on the
favourable traditional back-up line at the el Agheila bottleneck, or even before the main logistical base of Tripoli, a
behaviour which the Italian commanders and Kesselring considered in the most critical terms.,[97]
Much different was the perception of Rommel among the Italian common soldiers and lower officers, who reserved
for him the highest sort of admiration and respect.
21
Erwin Rommel
Aggression and tactical capability
In France, Rommel's aggressive drive through the French and British lines, disregarding the safety of his flanks and
rear, succeeded to a remarkable degree. His bold attacks often caused larger enemy formations to surrender, but his
aggressiveness did cause resentment among fellow officers, who felt he at times acted too recklessly and failed to
keep his sub-commanders and colleague commanders properly informed of his intentions. He was also criticized for
claiming too much of the glory himself, neglecting support from other elements of the Wehrmacht and downplaying
other units' achievements.
British General Harold Alexander commanded Allied forces in the Middle East facing Rommel in Egypt (from
August 1942) and later commanded 18th Army Group in Tunisia. In his official despatch on the campaign in Africa,
he wrote of Rommel:
He was a tactician of the greatest ability, with a firm grasp of every detail of the employment of armour in
action, and very quick to seize the fleeting opportunity and the critical turning point of a mobile battle. I felt
certain doubts, however, about his strategic ability, in particular as to whether he fully understood the
importance of a sound administrative plan. Happiest while controlling a mobile force directly under his own
eyes he was liable to overexploit immediate success without sufficient thought for the future.[98]
Sir David Hunt, one of Alexander's intelligence officers, expressed the view in his own book that:
...his real gift was for commanding an armoured regiment, perhaps a division, and that his absolute ceiling was
an armoured corps.[99]
During the siege of Tobruk, Rommel launched frequent costly attacks during the first month of the siege. The level
of losses incurred caused Rommel to have several arguments with his unit commanders, and also with the German
High Command. Indeed, some sources indicate that Chief of Staff Halder had to send Friedrich Paulus to Africa to
rein Rommel in, although Rommel himself maintained he had realized the futility of further attacks on the fortress on
his own accord.
Popular perception
Rommel was extraordinarily well known in his lifetime, not only by the German people, but also by his adversaries.
Popular stories of his chivalry and tactical prowess earned him the respect of many opponents, including Claude
Auchinleck, Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, and Bernard Montgomery. Rommel reciprocated their respect; for
instance, he said Montgomery "never made a serious strategic mistake" and credited Patton with "the most
astounding achievement in mobile warfare."[100] Hitler counted Rommel among his favourite generals. Rommel was
among the few Axis commanders (others being Isoroku Yamamoto and Reinhard Heydrich) directly targeted for
assassination by Allied planners. At least two attempts were made, Operation Flipper in North Africa on the eve of
Operation Crusader in 1941, and Operation Gaff shortly after the invasion of Normandy in 1944.[101] Both missions
failed to locate Rommel.[102][103]
The Afrika Korps were never accused of any war crimes, and Rommel himself referred to the fighting in North
Africa as Krieg ohne Hass—war without hate. Numerous examples exist of Rommel's chivalry towards Allied
POWs, such as his defiance of Hitler's infamous Commando Order following the capture of Lt. Roy Woodridge and
Lt. George Lane as part of Operation Fortitude. He also refused to comply with Hitler's order to execute Jewish
POWs.
During Rommel's time in France, Hitler ordered him to deport the country's Jewish population; Rommel disobeyed.
Several times he wrote letters protesting against the treatment of the Jews. When British Major Geoffrey Keyes was
killed during a failed commando raid to kill or capture Rommel behind German lines, Rommel ordered him buried
with full military honours. Also, during the construction of the Atlantic Wall, Rommel directed that French workers
were not to be used as slaves, but were to be paid for their labour.[104][105]
22
Erwin Rommel
His military colleagues also played their part in perpetuating his legend. His former subordinate Kircheim, though
privately critical of Rommel's performance, nonetheless explained: "thanks to propaganda, first by Goebbels, then by
Montgomery, and finally, after he was poisoned (sic), by all former enemy powers, he has become a symbol of the
best military traditions. ...Any public criticism of this legendary personality would damage the esteem in which the
German soldier is held."[106]
After the war, when Rommel's alleged involvement in the plot to kill Hitler became known, his stature was enhanced
greatly among the former Allied nations. Rommel was often cited in Western sources as a general who, though a
loyal German, was willing to stand up to Hitler. The release of the film The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel (1951)
helped to further enhance his reputation as one of the most widely known and well-regarded leaders in the German
Army. In 1970 a Lütjens-class destroyer was named the Rommel in his honour.
Quotations about Rommel
The British Parliament considered a censure vote against Winston Churchill following the surrender at Tobruk. The
vote failed, but in the course of the debate, Churchill stated:
We have a very daring and skillful opponent against us, and, may I say across the havoc of war, a great
general.[107]
Churchill again:
He also deserves our respect, because, although a loyal German soldier, he came to hate Hitler and all his
works, and took part in the conspiracy to rescue Germany by displacing the maniac and tyrant. For this, he
paid the forfeit of his life. In the sombre wars of modern democracy, there is little place for chivalry.[108]
Theodor Werner was an officer who, during World War I, served under Rommel:
Anybody who came under the spell of his personality turned into a real soldier. However tough the strain he
seemed inexhaustible. He seemed to know what the enemy were like and how they would react.[109]
British General Claude Auchinleck, one of Rommel's opponents in Africa, in a letter to his field commanders:
There exists a real danger that our friend Rommel is becoming a kind of magical or bogey-man to our troops,
who are talking far too much about him. He is by no means a superman, although he is undoubtedly very
energetic and able. Even if he were a superman, it would still be highly undesirable that our men should credit
him with supernatural powers... [ending the memo with] I am not jealous of Rommel.[110]
23
Erwin Rommel
24
Medals and decorations
• Württembergische Goldene Verdienstmedaille on 25 February 1915
• Military Merit Order Fourth Class with Swords
• Military Merit Order Second Class
• Württembergischer Friedrich Order with Swords First Class
• Military Merit Order on 8 April 1915
• Military Merit Cross III. Klasse
• Iron Cross (1914) 2nd Class on 30 September 1914
• Iron Cross (1914) 1st Class on 22 March 1915
• Pour le Mérite on 10 December 1917
• Wound Badge (1918) in Silver in 1918
• Cross of Honor in 1934
• Sudetenland Medal (invasion of the Wehrmacht in the Sudetenland)
• Memel Medal
• Wehrmacht Long Service Award IV. bis I. Stufe
• Ornate Samurai Sword from the Emperor of Japan
Rommel with his various
decorations, including the Knight's
Cross and Pour le Mérite
• Iron Cross 2nd Class on 17 May 1940
• Iron Cross 1st Class on 21 May 1940
• Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds
Knight's Cross on 27 May 1940 as Generalmajor and commander of the 7. Panzer-Division[111]
10th Oak Leaves on 20 March 1941 as Generalleutnant and commander of the 7. Panzer-Division[112]
6th Swords on 20 January 1942 as General der Panzertruppe and commander of the Panzergruppe Afrika[113]
6th Diamonds on 11 March 1943 as Generalfeldmarschall and commander in chief of the Heeresgruppe
Afrika[114]
Wound Badge in Gold on 7 August 1944
Panzer Badge in Silver
Italian Medaglia d'Argento al Valor Militare (Silver Medal for Military Valour) on 22 April 1941
Knight of the Colonial Order of the Star of Italy on 28 April 1942
Grand Officer of the Italian Military Order of Savoy Mid-1942
Romanian Order of Michael the Brave 3rd and 2nd Class on 12 July 1944
Mentioned twice on the Wehrmachtbericht (26 June 1942 and 10 September 1943)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dates of ranks
Erwin Rommel
25
•
Fähnrich—19 July 1910
•
Oberst—1 October 1937
•
Leutnant—27 January 1912
•
Generalmajor—1 August 1939
•
Oberleutnant—18 September 1915 •
Generalleutnant—9 February 1941
•
Hauptmann—18 October 1918
•
General der Panzertruppe—1 July 1941
•
Major—1 April 1932
•
Generaloberst—24 January 1942
•
Oberstleutnant—1 October 1933
•
Generalfeldmarschall—21 June 1942
References
Notes
Explanatory notes
[1] "Erwin Rommel" (http:/ / www. history. com/ topics/ erwin-rommel-erwin). History.com. . Retrieved 13 April 2012.
[2] Hakim 1995
[3] Bierman & Smith 2002, p. 56
[4] Current Biography Yearbook 1942 New York: H.W. Wilson, 1943. pp. 701–04. See also: http:/ / www. storico. org/ Rommel. htm
[5] Irving 1977, p. 39
[6] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 6
[7] von Luck 1989, p. 38
[8] Irving 1977, p. 44
[9] Irving 1977, p. 45
[10] Irving 1977, p. 50
[11] Irving 1977, p. 51
[12] Irving 1977, p. 55
[13] Irving 1977, p. 56
[14] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 106
[15] Windrow 1976, p. 9
[16] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 107
[17] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 110
[18] Windrow 1976, p. 10
[19] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 121
[20] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 126
[21] Irving 1977, p. 84
[22] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 129
[23] Irving 1977, p. 90
[24] Irving 1977, p. 92
[25] Windrow 1976
[26] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 146
[27] Stegemann 1995, p. 729
[28] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 159
[29] This attack could have been a serious mistake, according to von Mellenthin—if the British 7th Armoured Division had concentrated their
armour, they might very well have inflicted a serious loss on 21st Panzer Division, and it would have been a more prudent course if Rommel
had held off the counterattack.von Mellenthin 1955, p. 74
[30] von Mellenthin 1955, p. 76
[31] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 162
[32] Fritz Bayerlein in Liddell Hart 1953, p. 165
[33] Stegemann 1995
[34] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 166
[35] von Mellenthin 1955, p. 88
[36] 23 to 28 November according to von Mellenthin.von Luck 1989, p. 58
[37] von Mellenthin 1955, p. 99
[38] Fritz Bayerlein, Liddell Hart 1953, Chapter 8
[39] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 195
[40] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 196
[41] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 217
[42] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 224
Erwin Rommel
[43] Rommel later told his confidante, Hans von Luck, that he would have preferred the Führer gave him another division. This was recounted
by Luck in his memoirs, Panzer Commander.
[44] Shirer 1960
[45] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 233
[46] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 234
[47] von Mellenthin 1955, p. 150
[48] von Mellenthin 1955, p. 152
[49] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 235
[50] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 239
[51] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 254
[52] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 267
[53] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 268
[54] Carver 1962, p. 67
[55] Lewin 1998, p. 160
[56] Carver 1962, p. 70
[57] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 286
[58] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 298
[59] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 299
[60] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 305
[61] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 306
[62] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 307
[63] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 319
[64] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 322
[65] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 326
[66] Liddell Hart 1953, pp. 342–357
[67] Deac, Wil (12 June 2006). "Intercepted Communications for Field Marshal Erwin Rommel" (http:/ / www. historynet. com/
intercepted-communications-for-field-marshal-erwin-rommel. htm/ 1). HistoryNet.com. Weider History Group. . Retrieved 5 June 2011.
[68] von Mellenthin 1955
[69] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 510, Irving 1977, p. 332.
[70] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 510, Irving 1977, p. 326.
[71] Irving 1977, p. 327
[72] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 508
[73] Irving 1977, p. 345
[74] Irving 1977, p. 347
[75] Irving 1977, p. 354
[76] Irving 1977, p. 362
[77] Breuer, William B. (2000). Top Secret Tales of World War II. Wiley. pp. 185-187. ISBN 0-471-35382-5.
[78] "Obituary: Flight Lieutenant Charley Fox" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ obituaries/ 3381986/ Flight-Lieutenant-Charley-Fox.
html). Telegraph. 4 November 2008. . Retrieved 27 March 2010.
[79] Clostermann 2005, pp. 193–196
[80] Speidel 1950, pp. 68, 73
[81] Manfred Rommel, Nuremberg testimony
[82] Irving 1977
[83] Marshall 1994, p. 189
[84] Ryan 2007, p. 43
[85] The Memoirs of Field Marshal Keitel (http:/ / www. fpp. co. uk/ books/ Keitel/ Keitel. zip), Keitel autobiography
[86] Willmott, Pimlott & Fowler 1979, p. 37
[87] Van Creveld 1977, p. 201
[88] Irving 1977, p. 42
[89] A similar atmosphere pervaded around Rommel's British foil, Viscount Bernard Montgomery
[90] Liddell Hart 1953, p. 165
[91] Hitler was also a military gambler. When the gambles failed to pan out, as at Stalingrad, Rommel's disillusionment grew. Ironically, Hitler's
effective execution of Rommel was also a gamble, as if such a rash action could accomplish something to save the Reich.
[92] von Mellenthin 1955, p. 58
[93] "Diario storico del Comando Supremo", vol.5 to 9, – Italian Army General Staff Historical Office
[94] "Verbali delle riunioni tenute dal Capo di SM Generale", vol.2 and 3, – Italian Army General Staff Historical Office
[95] Kesselring, The Memoirs of Field Marshal Kesselring, pp. 124–125
[96] Montanari, "Le operazioni in Africa Settentrionale", vol. 1 to 4 – Italian Army General Staff Historical Office
[97] M.Montanari, Le Operazioni in Africa Settentrionale, Vol.IV, chapter III, pages 119-197
26
Erwin Rommel
[98] London Gazette: (Supplement) no. 38196. p. 843 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 38196/ supplements/ 843). 3 February 1948.
Retrieved 30 July 2008.
[99] Hunt 1990, p. 74
[100] Terry Brighton. Patton, Montgomery, Rommel: Masters of War. New York: Crown, 2008. p. xvii
[101] Moorhouse 2007, pp. 157–158
[102] Green 1993, p. 137
[103] Hunter, Thomas B.. "Targeted Killing: Self-Defense, Preemption, and the War on Terrorism" (http:/ / www. operationalstudies. com/
mootw/ Targeted Killing Research PaperOS. pdf). OperationalStudies.com. . Retrieved 2 January 2011.
[104] Rigg 2002, pp. 40, 103, 131–132, 314
[105] Details several specific instances of Rommel's disinclination to go along with the Nazi antisemitic policy and consequent orders.
[106] In a letter to Johannes Streich, who also served under Rommel as the commander of the 5th Light Division in North Africa, and came to
loathe Rommel.
[107] Biggs 2008, p. 97
[108] Churchill, Winston (1986). Second World War. Volume 3: The Grand Alliance (reissue, illustrated ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 177.
ISBN 978-0-395-41057-8.
[109] Irving 1977, p. 15
[110] The World At Arms, Reader's Digest, 1989
[111] Fellgiebel 2000, p. 363
[112] Fellgiebel 2000, p. 54
[113] Fellgiebel 2000, p. 39
[114] Fellgiebel 2000, p. 36
Citations
Sources
• Almásy, László (2001). With Rommel's Army in Libya. Bloomington, Ind.: 1st Books Libr..
ISBN 978-0-7596-1608-0.
• Berger, Florian (2000) (in German). Mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern. Die höchstdekorierten Soldaten des Zweiten
Weltkrieges. Selbstverlag Florian Berger. p. 415. ISBN 978-3-9501307-0-6.
• Bierman, John; Smith, Colin (2002). The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II.
ISBN 978-0-670-03040-8.
• Biggs, Barton (2008). Wealth, War and Wisdom (illustrated ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-22307-9.
• Brighton, Terry (2009). Masters of Battle: Monty, Patton and Rommel at War. Penguin.
ISBN 978-0-14-102985-6.
• Carver, Michael (1962). El Alamein. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-84022-220-3.
• Clostermann, Pierre (2005) [1st published 1948 in French]. The Big Show: The Greatest Pilot's Story of World
War II. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-36624-8.
• Van Creveld, Martin L. (1977). Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton. Cambridge & New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21730-9.
• Fellgiebel, Walther-Peer (2000) (in German). Die Träger des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen Kreuzes 1939–1945.
Friedburg, Germany: Podzun-Pallas. ISBN 978-3-7909-0284-6.
• Green, Leslie C. (1993). The contemporary law of armed conflict (http://books.google.co.in/
books?id=tcTmAAAAIAAJ). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3540-1.
• De Lannoy, Francois (2002). Afrikakorps, 1941–1943: The Libya Egypt Campaign. Bayeux: Heimdal.
ISBN 978-2-84048-152-2.
• Forty, George (1997). The Armies of Rommel. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 978-1-85409-379-0.
• Fraser, David (1994). Knight's Cross: A Life of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
ISBN 978-0-06-092597-0.
• Greene, Jack; Massignani, Alessandro (1994). Rommel's North Africa Campaign: September 1940 – November
1942. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books. ISBN 978-1-58097-018-1.
• Hakim, Joy (1995). War, peace, and all that jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507761-2.
• Hunt, Sir David (1990) [1966]. A Don at War. Frank Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-3383-1.
27
Erwin Rommel
• Irving, David (1977). The Trail of the Fox—The Search for the True Field Marshal Rommel. Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. ISBN 978-1-872197-29-6.
• Jentz, Thomas L. (1998). Tank Combat in North Africa: The Opening Rounds: Operations Sonnenblume, Brevity,
Skorpion and Battleaxe February 1941 – June 1941. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History.
ISBN 978-0-7643-0226-8.
• Kelly, Orr (2002). Meeting the Fox: The Allied Invasion of Africa, from Operation Torch to Kasserine Pass to
Victory in Tunisia. New York: J. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-41429-2.
• Knopp, Guido (2000). Hitlers Krieger. Goldmann Verlag. ISBN 978-3-442-15045-8.
• Kriebel, Rainer; Gudmundsson, Bruce I (1999). Inside the Afrika Korps: The Crusader Battles, 1941–1942.
London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1-85367-322-1.
• Latimer, Jon (2002). Alamein. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01016-1.
• Latimer, Jon (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move. Oxford: Osprey Military. ISBN 978-1-84176-092-6.
• Lewin, Ronald (1998) [1968]. Rommel As Military Commander. New York: B&N Books.
ISBN 978-0-7607-0861-3.
• Rommel, Erwin (1982) [1953]. Liddell Hart, B. H.. ed. The Rommel Papers. New York: Da Capo Press.
ISBN 978-0-306-80157-0.
• von Luck, Hans (1989). Panzer Commander: The Memoirs of Colonel Hans von Luck. Cassel Military
Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-304-36401-5.
• Marshall, Charles F. (1994). The Rommel Murder: The Life and Death of the Desert Fox. Stackpole Marshall
Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-2472-2.
• von Mellenthin, Friedrich (1955). Panzer Battles: A Study of the Employment of Armor in the Second World War.
Cassell. ISBN 978-0-345-32158-9.
• Mitcham, Samuel W. (2001) [1998]. Rommel's Greatest Victory. Novato, Calif.: Presidio.
ISBN 978-0-89141-730-9.
• Moorhouse, Roger (2007). Killing Hitler: The Third Reich and the Plots Against the Führer. London: Random
House. ISBN 978-1-844133-22-2.
• Reuth, Ralf Georg (2006). Rommel: The End of a Legend. London: Haus Books. ISBN 978-1-904950-20-2.
• Rigg, Bryan Mark (2002). Hitler's Jewish Soldiers. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
ISBN 978-0-7006-1358-8.
• Rommel, Erwin (1934) (in German). Gefechts-Aufgaben für Zug und Kompanie : Ein Handb. f. d.
Offizierunterricht. Mittler & Sohn.
• Rommel, Erwin; Kidde, G. E. (2006) [1937]. Infantry Attacks. OCLC 22898178.
• Rommel, Erwin; Pimlott, John (2006) [2003]. Rommel and his Art of War. London: Greenhill Books.
ISBN 978-1-85367-543-0.
• Ryan, Cornelius (2007) [1974]. A Bridge Too Far. London: Hodder. ISBN 978-0-340-93398-5.
• Sakkers, Hans (1993) (in Dutch). Generalfeldmarschall Rommel: opperbevelhebber van Heeresgruppe B bij de
voorbereiding van de verdediging van West-Europa, 5 November 1943 tot 6 Juni 1944. ISBN 978-90-800900-2-6.
• Schaulen, Fritjof (2005) (in German). Eichenlaubträger 1940 – 1945 Zeitgeschichte in Farbe III Radusch –
Zwernemann. Germany: Selent, Pour le Mérite. ISBN 978-3-932381-22-5.
• Scherzer, Veit (2007) (in German). Die Ritterkreuzträger 1939–1945 Die Inhaber des Ritterkreuzes des Eisernen
Kreuzes 1939 von Heer, Luftwaffe, Kriegsmarine, Waffen-SS, Volkssturm sowie mit Deutschland verbündeter
Streitkräfte nach den Unterlagen des Bundesarchives. Jena, Germany: Scherzers Miltaer-Verlag.
ISBN 978-3-938845-17-2.
• Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon and Schuster.
ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0.
• Showalter, Dennis (2005). Patton and Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century. ISBN 978-0-425-20663-8.
• Speidel, Hans (1950). Invasion 1944: Rommel and the Normandy Campaign. Chicago: Henry Regnery.
28
Erwin Rommel
• Stegemann, Bernard (1995). Germany and the Second World War—Volume III—Part IV and V. Oxford:
Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822884-4.
• Van Creveld, Martin (1977). Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29793-6.
• Williamson, Gordon (2006). Knight's Cross with Diamonds Recipients 1941–45. Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-84176-644-7.
• Willmott, Ned; Pimlott, John; Fowler, Will (1979). Strategy and Tactics of War. London; New York: Marshall
Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-85685-503-0.
• Young, Desmond (1950). Rommel The Desert Fox. New York: Harper & Row. OCLC 48067797.
• Windrow, Martin (1976). Rommel's Desert Army. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85045-095-8.
External links
• The Forced Suicide of Field Marshall Rommel, 1944 (http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/rommel.htm)
• Erwin Rommel—The Idol (http://tvschoenfilm.com/index.php?lang=eng&c=filmographie&id=13) German
Documentary
• Who Was Erwin Rommel? (http://www.militaryhistorywiki.org/world-war-two/who-was-erwin-rommel/)
Post detailing Rommel's life
• The Real Rommel—Channel 4's Portrait (http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/R/real_lives/rommel.
html)
• Erwin Rommel (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Rommel.html) Jewish Virtual
Library
• Rommel in Libya (http://www.rommelinlibya.com)
• Rommel's battlefields in Libya today (http://www.rommelinlibya.com)
• Erwin Rommel in the french castle in la Roche Guyon, some pictures (http://www.montjoye.net/
Erwin_Rommel)
• Works by or about Erwin Rommel (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n78-95764) in libraries (WorldCat
catalog)
• Erwin Rommel Desert War.net (http://desertwar.net/erwin-rommel.html)
29
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Erwin Rommel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=519588614 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 0, 119, 128.32.172.xxx, 1exec1, 312ttabm, 54gsze4ghz5, 62.253.64.xxx, 7mike5000,
A.S. Brown, A3RO, AP1787, Abel29a, Abhishek, Abraham, B.S., Accurizer, Achillesshiva, AdRock, Adam Couch, Adam1516, Addshore, Adrian, Aesaar, Ahoerstemeier, Ai6z83xl3g,
Airbornelawyer, Alai, Alakazam138, Alan Canon, Alex1011, Alexlange, Alf74, Algebraist, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Alvis, Amaling, Amore Mio, AndarielHalo, Andres, AndrewHowse,
Andrewjnyc, Andrewpmk, Angmering, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Antique Rose, Art LaPella, Arturolorioli, Arx Fortis, AshLin, Astral, Attilios, AuthorNeubius, Average Earthman,
AxelBoldt, BRUTE, BabyStabber, Balaurul, Banaticus, Barbatus, Barnej, Baron von HoopleDoople, BarretB, Bassbonerocks, Bbsrock, Before My Ken, Bellahdoll, Bemoeial, Bento00, Berean
Hunter, BertSen, Betacommand, Beyond My Ken, BigTinz, Bigpad, Billyshiverstick, Binabik80, Binksternet, Birdshot9, Biruitorul, Bjankuloski06en, Black Falcon, Blackeagle, Blacktea,
Bleh999, Bob1943, Bobet, Bosse Andersson, Br'er Rabbit, Brainhell, Brandmeister (old), Bratzgirl996, Brookdale chick, BrownHairedGirl, Brufnus, BuddyJesus, Bytwerk, C+C, CCHIPSS,
CLW, CMW275, Cadorna, Caknuck, CambridgeBayWeather, CamperStrike, Caponer, Capricorn42, Capt Jim, Captain panda, Carlinhos1976, Catgut, Causa sui, Cefryd, Cglassey, Charley sf,
Chefallen, ChessPlayer, ChibiKuririn, Chris the speller, Ciara304, Cjewell, Clarityfiend, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cobblet, ColdFusion, Colonel Warden, Comatose51, CommonsDelinker,
Connellingus, Connormah, Conor Kenny, Conti, Coolio12345, Coughinink, Courcelles, Cox davis smith, Cplakidas, Cranston lamont, Creidieki, Crohnie, Cyclopaedic, CyrilleDunant, D6,
DD2K, DMACHIST, DPdH, Dachshund, Dahn, Dan100, Danflagrat, Daniel 1992, DanielCD, Dapi89, Dapsv, Darkmind1970, Darth Ludi, Darth Panda, Darwinek, Darz Mol, Dave6,
DaveTheRed, Davewho2, Davewild, David Newton, Death Bredon, Death Heart, Deathphoenix, Dekthep, Deltabeignet, Den fjättrade ankan, Dendodge, Der Sanitater, Derktar, Deviator13,
Dexx76, Dfl92, Dgillett, Diannaa, Dietary Fiber, Digirami, Dimadick, Discospinster, Dismas, Djmutex, Dman727, Dmarcov, Doc Strange, DocWatson42, Dodo19, Donfbreed, Donmcgraw,
Donnog, Doovinator, Dormskirk, DouginHungary, Dougz1, Dr. Whooves, Dr.Iceman, Driftwood87, Dudley68, Duncanbruce, Dysepsion, E-Kartoffel, Easter Monkey, Eastmbr, Ebehn, Ech1969,
Echion2, Edton, Ehistory, Ejectgoose, Elaragirl, Elg26, Elipongo, Ellaandbella, Eloquence, Emops, Enceladus, Encyclopedist, EngGerm, Epbr123, Ergateesuk, Eric-Wester, Eric76, Ericoides,
Ericsteelman, Ernham, ErrantX, Esrob, Evans1982, Everyking, Evil Maniac From Mars, Ewoke, Excelpp, Excirial, Exeunt, Fagbreath, Falkmart, Farshengarsh, FeanorStar7, Felix116, Felixboy,
Feuersturm, Fg, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Floquenbeam, Flowanda, Flubbit, Folcwald, Folks at 137, Foxj, Fredrik, Fresheneesz, FromFoamsToWaves, Fryed-peach, Fubar Obfusco, Fuhghettaboutit,
Furrykef, Fushmonger, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, Gamahler, GaryColemanFan, Geeman, GeneralPatton, Genjix, Ghewgill, GhostPirate, Gigemag76, Gilgamesh he, Gilliam, Glic16, Good
Intentions, Good Olfactory, Goodoldpolonius2, Googuse, Graham87, GrahamBould, Grandia01, Grant65, Greek Transistor, Greghm, Grenavitar, Grendlefuzz, GrummelJS, Gsmgm, Gugganij,
Gunbirddriver, Gurch, Gwernol, Gyrofrog, Gökhan, H27kim, HJ Mitchell, Haber, [email protected], Half-Blood Auror, Halibutt, Hamish59, HangingCurve, Harald Hansen, Hardnfast,
HarveyHenkelmann, Harveyqs, Hawkeye7, Heimstern, Henry Flower, Herostratus, Herut, Hhdiic, Historyrevisited, Hmains, HogiBear, Hohum, Hongooi, Hoops gza, HorsePunchKid, Hu, Huon,
Hurleyn, Hushpuckena, IZAK, Icairns, Iisdj, Interfides, Ionaius, Ipoellet, Irb, Isfisk, IstvanWolf, Italia2006, J JMesserly, J.N. Houterman, J.delanoy, JForget, JQ, Jab843, Jacek Kendysz,
JackofOz, Jackyd101, Jacob Koopa, Jaedza, Jak123, Jaker5, Jamegs82, Jbhood, Jeffwarnica, JeltLuthor, Jengod, Jeronimo, Jersey Devil, Jheald, JidGom, Jim Sweeney, Jim1138, Jimduchek,
Jimm12, Jnocook, JoDonHo, Joecool94, John K, John Lunney, John254, JohnC, JohnCD, Jojhutton, Jon Ascton, JonathanDP81, Jorge1767, Joshtaco, José Fontaine, Jpgordon, Jponii, Jrtayloriv,
Julia Rossi, Jusdafax, JustPhil, Jweiss11, Jwy, Karl-Henner, Katharineamy, Keegan, Keilana, KeithB, KeithTyler, Kelisi, Kent Wang, KerathFreeman, Kernel Saunters, Kierzek, Kilo6490, King
Semsem, Kirrages, Klamber, Klassikkomies, Klehti, Kluddoo, KnightRider, Knispel, Koinstiger, Koyaanis Qatsi, Krich, Kross, Kubanczyk, Kukini, Kurt Leyman, Kuru, Kurykh, Kusma,
Kyleb1502, LFaraone, LIU, LP-mn, Lacrimosus, Lahiru k, Lambiam, Lancer2011, LeaveSleaves, Legaleagle86, Leithp, LeoDV, LeoO3, Leoboudv, LeonardoRob0t, Lesonyrra, Leujohn,
Lexington50, Lhademmor, Lhimec, Liberlogos, Lir, Little Professor, Littleoerwin, Location, Logjam42, Lollerskates, Longbow4u, Longhorn333, Looper5920, Lottamiata, Lupo, Lusanders,
Lyricmac, Lysy, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MER-C, MK, Madelinepalg, Mads Lange, Maestro25, Magioladitis, Magnus.de, Maher27777, MakeChooChooGoNow, Mandarax, Mandsford, Manocheese,
Manxruler, Marcika, Mariaflores1955, Mark83, Markk01, Matkatamiba, Matthew.brett, Matthewhammer, MauriceJFox3, Maury Markowitz, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mediatech492, Mel Etitis,
MerrimacVI, Mfield, Mgiganteus1, Miami33139, Michael David, Michelle301977, Mightfox, Mihai, Mike Selinker, Mikular, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miletus, Mimihitam, MinnesotanConfederacy,
Mintleaf, Mirte, MisterBee1966, Mizzou1926, Mkpumphrey, Mmmtravis, Mo0, Mobius117, Moe Epsilon, Molobo, Momet, Monegasque, Monty845, Moop stick, Mpete510, Mr. Quickling,
MrHaroldG2000, Mwelch, Mxn, Myanw, N328KF, NachtLink, Nagy, Nagytibi, Nalla4169, Natewest, Nedrutland, Neogeolegend, Netmedic, Netsnipe, Neudorf, Neutrality, Nevilley,
NewEnglandYankee, NiTenIchiRyu, Nick Number, Nk, Nkocharh, Nlu, Noclador, Norm mit, Novacatz, NuclearWarfare, Numbo3, Nwinther, Oberiko, OfficeBoy, OldakQuill, Olessi, One35th,
Oneforlogic, Oops i am a vandal, Ortolan88, Ortonmc, Osmon, Otets, Outback the koala, Owen, Oxymoron83, Oydman, P. S. Burton, PJMcGivney, PRODUCER, Paaerduag, Palapala,
Paperworm, Parsecboy, ParticleMan, Paul Barlow, Pavel Vozenilek, Pawebster, Percommode, Pete.Hurd, Peter Chastain, PeterSymonds, Pfahlstrom, Phaedriel, Phatcat68, Philebritite, Philg88,
Philopedia, Philrmatthews, Piepie, Pk302, Plasticbadge, Podmejc, Prekario, ProperlyRaised, ProudIrishAspie, Pupster21, Pushkaraj, Quadell, Quaeler, Quebec99, Qxz, R.D.H. (Ghost In The
Machine), RA0808, RIS cody, RP459, Raidon Kane, Rails, Raistlin8r, Rajah, RandomP, Raoulu, Raul654, Rayshade, Rcbutcher, Rdsmith4, Recognizance, Red Director, RedMabuse,
Reedmalloy, Reenem, Reflex Reaction, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Richard David Ramsey, Richard75, RickK, Ricky81682, Rjay100, Rjensen, Rjm656s, Rjwilmsi, Rlinfinity, Robert1947,
Roberta F., Robertm321, Robwingfield, RodCrosby, Roger Davies, Roisterer, Roleplayer, Romanm, Romit3, Ronhjones, Ronny corral, Rory096, Rotten venetic, Rougher07, Rrburke, Rubisco,
Rune.welsh, Russeasby, SF007, Sabri76, Sahilm, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, Samdacruel, SamuelTheGhost, Samuelsen, Sandstein, Sannse, Sanya, Saranghae honey, Savidan, Savolya, Scarian,
Scartboy, Schnellundleicht, Schnerd, Schwimmnudel07, Scienceinc., Sciurinæ, Scott Sanchez, ScottDavis, ScreaminEagle, Seafort, Sealman, Seaphoto, Searcher 1990, SecretAgentMan00, SelfQ,
Semper-Fi 2006, Senbonzakura54, Sf67, Sflancer06, Shane Daniel Dwyer, Shanequinn12, Shanes, Shauri, ShelfSkewed, Sherurcij, Shlimozzle, Sidhu Jyatha, Simbagraphix, Sioraf, Siva.eas,
Siwowolm, Skizzik, Skomorokh, Skysmith, Slugfighter, Sml100, SoLando, Sochwa, Solicitr, Solipsist, Solnath, Sophie, Soul.collector.raj, Southstudent9, Soz101, Spam Max, Speedboy
Salesman, Speermeister, Spiff, Spinalcoin, Spinningspark, Splash, SpuriousQ, Spy007au, Squiddy, Squirrel06, Sstein7, StYxXx, Staufenberg, Stefanomione, SteveCoppock, StoneProphet,
Stradfox, Stringman5, StuartCarter, Stwalkerster, Supercoop, Suredeath, Surv1v4l1st, Susan Mason, Svick, SwordSmurf, Symon, Szajci, Tabletop, Taco325i, Tambro4, Tanaats, Tanvir Ahmmed,
TawsifSalam, Tdbostick, Teddylayne, Template namespace initialisation script, The Fat Man Who Never Came Back, The Madras, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, ThreeBlindMice,
Thunderhead, Thuresson, Tide rolls, Tigger69, Tilacino, Tim1357, Timmah48, Timt1006, Tjic, Tkreuz, Tnxman307, ToastieIL, Tobby72, Tokarev7, TomTheHand, Tommel, Trainik, Tregoweth,
Trekphiler, Tresckow, Treybien, Trident13, Trumpet marietta 45750, Trusilver, Tsuka, Tswold, USArmyMP324th, Ulric1313, Ummit, Utcursch, Vanished user 39948282, Vanjagenije, Vasile,
Vera Cruz, Vina, Vincent Gray, Viriditas, Virtual Cowboy, Vladlen666, Volker89, Voracious reader, Vyom25, Wahabijaz, Wallie, Wars, Welsh, Wereon, Wernergerman, Wesaynothin, Wesley
M. Curtus, Wik, Wiki Raja, Wiki1609, WikiParker, Wikialoft, Wikieditoroftoday, WikipedianMarlith, WikipedianProlific, Willhsmit, William Pembroke, WolfmanSF, Wwoods, Wzap, XLerate,
Xanadu, Xanzzibar, Xyl 54, Yamenah, Yelizandpaul, YixilTesiphon, Ylee, Yosy, Yu-gi-ohfan2011, ZX81, Zeno Gantner, Ziggle, ZimZalaBim, Zimbardo Cookie Experiment, Zosew, Zozzoz,
Zzedar, Šedý, ‫ﺋﺎﺭﺍﺱ ﻧﻮﺭﯼ‬, 1820 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1973-012-43, Erwin Rommel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1973-012-43,_Erwin_Rommel.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: A1B2C3D4, Berliner Schildkröte, Bundesarchiv-B6, Denniss, Felix Stember, Teofilo, VanKleinen, 1 anonymous edits
File:Flag of the German Empire.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:B1mbo and
User:Madden
File:Flag of Germany (3-2 aspect ratio).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany_(3-2_aspect_ratio).svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:Mmxx
File:Flag of German Reich (1935–1945).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_German_Reich_(1935–1945).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fornax
File:Flag of Weimar Republic (war).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Weimar_Republic_(war).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: diese Datei:
Jwnabd
File:Balkenkreuz.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balkenkreuz.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: David Liuzzo
File:Erwin Rommel Signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Erwin_Rommel_Signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Erwin Rommel
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-013-0064-35, Polen, Bormann, Hitler, Rommel, v. Reichenau.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-013-0064-35,_Polen,_Bormann,_Hitler,_Rommel,_v._Reichenau.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0 Germany Contributors: Andros64, Frank C. Müller, Gorgo, Jarekt, Martin H., Mtsmallwood, Nemo5576, Pibwl, T.seppelt, Teofilo
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-045-08, Westfeldzug, Rommel bei Besprechung mit Offizieren.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1972-045-08,_Westfeldzug,_Rommel_bei_Besprechung_mit_Offizieren.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: AnRo0002, Cirt, Duch.seb, EWriter, Pibwl, Teofilo
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1970-076-43, Paris, Erwin Rommel bei Siegesparade.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-076-43,_Paris,_Erwin_Rommel_bei_Siegesparade.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Germany Contributors: AnRo0002, Para, Teofilo, 2 anonymous edits
File:AfricaMap2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AfricaMap2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was GeneralPatton at en.wikipedia
File:Tobruk 1941 - British Matilda tanks.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tobruk_1941_-_British_Matilda_tanks.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
Vanderson W G (Lt), No 1 Army Film & Photographic Post-Work: User:W.wolny
30
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1982-0927-503, Bei El Agheila, Rommel bei italienischer Division.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1982-0927-503,_Bei_El_Agheila,_Rommel_bei_italienischer_Division.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: G.dallorto, Maher27777, Martin H., Teofilo
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1977-018-13A, Erwin Rommel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1977-018-13A,_Erwin_Rommel.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Manxruler, Teofilo
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-786-0327-19, Nordafrika, Erwin Rommel mit Offizieren.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-786-0327-19,_Nordafrika,_Erwin_Rommel_mit_Offizieren.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Germany Contributors: Florival fr, Fredy.00, Lupo, Martin H., Teofilo
File:Rommel with his aides.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rommel_with_his_aides.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany
Contributors: Leithp, Raymond, Teofilo, Túrelio, UV, W.wolny, 4 anonymous edits
File:Destroyed Panzer IIIs near Tel el Eisa 1942.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Destroyed_Panzer_IIIs_near_Tel_el_Eisa_1942.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Australian armed forces
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1990-071-31, Nordafrika, Rommel, Bayerlein.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1990-071-31,_Nordafrika,_Rommel,_Bayerlein.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany
Contributors: Bukvoed, Catsmeat, Florival fr, Hohum, Moumou82, Pibwl, Rcbutcher, SuperTank17, Teofilo, 1 anonymous edits
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J16362, Erwin Rommel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J16362,_Erwin_Rommel.jpg License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Teofilo, 1 anonymous edits
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-263-1598-04, Frankreich, Rommel, "Indische Legion".jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-263-1598-04,_Frankreich,_Rommel,_"Indische_Legion".jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Germany Contributors: AnRo0002, Bundesarchiv-B6, Cherubino, Martin H., Teofilo, Tiem Borussia 73, 1 anonymous edits
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-718-0149-17A, Paris, Rommel und von Rundstedt.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-718-0149-17A,_Paris,_Rommel_und_von_Rundstedt.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Germany Contributors: Hohum, Martin H., Teofilo, YMS
File:Erwin rommel death.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Erwin_rommel_death.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jorge1767
File:Rommels-grab.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rommels-grab.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Tatjana8047
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1985-013-07, Erwin Rommel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1985-013-07,_Erwin_Rommel.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: A1B2C3D4, AusTerrapin, Rosenzweig, Teofilo, Uaauaa
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
31