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Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232. With 3 figures
Resolution of the type material of the Asian
elephant, Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758
(Proboscidea, Elephantidae)
ENRICO CAPPELLINI1*, ANTHEA GENTRY2, ELEFTHERIA PALKOPOULOU3,4,
YASUKO ISHIDA5, DAVID CRAM6, ANNA-MARIE ROOS7, MICK WATSON8,
ULF S. JOHANSSON9, BO FERNHOLM9, PAOLO AGNELLI10, FAUSTO BARBAGLI10,
D. TIM J. LITTLEWOOD2, CHRISTIAN D. KELSTRUP11, JESPER V. OLSEN11,
ADRIAN M. LISTER2, ALFRED L. ROCA5, LOVE DALÉN3 and
M. THOMAS P. GILBERT1,12
1
Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster
Voldgade 5-7, 1350 Copenhagen, Denmark
2
Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
3
Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, SE-10405
Stockholm, Sweden
4
Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
5
Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
61801, USA
6
Jesus College, Turl Street, Oxford OX1 3DW, UK
7
Lincoln School of Humanities, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 7TS, UK
8
The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
9
Department of Zoology, Swedish Museum of Natural History, SE-10405 Stockholm, Sweden
10
Natural History Museum of Florence, via Romana 17, 50125 Florence, Italy
11
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of
Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3b, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
12
Ancient DNA Laboratory, Murdoch University, South St, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia
Received 24 June 2013; revised 20 August 2013; accepted for publication 20 August 2013
The understanding of Earth’s biodiversity depends critically on the accurate identification and nomenclature of
species. Many species were described centuries ago, and in a surprising number of cases their nomenclature or type
material remain unclear or inconsistent. A prime example is provided by Elephas maximus, one of the most iconic
and well-known mammalian species, described and named by Linnaeus (1758) and today designating the Asian
elephant. We used morphological, ancient DNA (aDNA), and high-throughput ancient proteomic analyses to
demonstrate that a widely discussed syntype specimen of E. maximus, a complete foetus preserved in ethanol, is
actually an African elephant, genus Loxodonta. We further discovered that an additional E. maximus syntype,
mentioned in a description by John Ray (1693) cited by Linnaeus, has been preserved as an almost complete skeleton
at the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence. Having confirmed its identity as an Asian elephant
through both morphological and ancient DNA analyses, we designate this specimen as the lectotype of E. maximus.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
222
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
TYPE MATERIAL OF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS
223
The mass spectrometry proteomics data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange Consortium with the data
set identifier PXD000423.
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232.
doi: 10.1111/zoj.12084
ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: Albertus Seba – ancient DNA – ancient proteins – Carl Linnaeus – John Ray
– lectotypification – Loxodonta.
INTRODUCTION
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
(ICZN; 1999) establishes the starting date for zoological nomenclature as 1 January 1758, the year when
Edition 10 of the Systema Naturae of Carl Linnaeus
(1758) was published. References cited by Linnaeus
form an integral part of the description of his species,
and material that the descriptions and/or illustrations
of the cited authors were based on is considered
syntypic (forming part of the name-bearing type
series), whether or not it was examined by Linnaeus
and whether or not it still exists (ICZN Article 72.4.1).
Thus, both Linnaeus’ own specimens and descriptions,
as well as those of the earlier authors he cited, are
of equal status for zoological nomenclature. Like
his predecessors, Linnaeus (1758) did not distinguish
between Asian and African elephants. Amongst the
authors he cited in his description of Elephas
maximus, the figure in Gesner (1551), reproduced in
Aldrovandi (1616), very likely represents an African
elephant, whereas figures in Jonston (1650), pls 7–9
show an Asian elephant (Supporting Information S1),
thus suggesting that E. maximus might have a composite type series. The African elephant was established as two separate species later: Elephas africanus
Blumenbach, 1797 (currently Loxodonta africana) and
Elephas cyclotis Matschie, 1900 (currently Loxodonta
cyclotis).
A most remarkable specimen referred to by
Linnaeus (1764) in his description of the Swedish
King Adolf Fredrik’s collection, is the well-preserved,
near-complete, body of an elephant foetus in a spirit
jar, held today at the Swedish Museum of Natural
History (NRM) in Stockholm. This specimen was initially owned by the Dutch West India Company,
which operated in West Africa, the Americas, and
the Pacific. The foetus later became part of Albertus
Seba’s natural history collection, one of the richest of
its time (Supporting Information S2). Between 1734
and 1765, Seba (1734, 1759, 1765) published descriptions with plates of his specimens in his ‘Thesaurus’.
The elephant foetus is clearly illustrated in vol. 1
(plate 111, fig. 1; 1734, here reproduced in Fig. 1A),
and it is recorded (p. 175) as originating in Africa.
The Swedish sovereign and his wife bought the
specimen either at the April 1752 auction of Seba’s
collection, or shortly thereafter from one of the other
purchasers (Lovén, 1887; Engel, 1961; Boeseman,
1970). The elephant foetus was kept at Drottningholm
Palace from 1773 to 1801 and was finally placed in
what became the NRM (Fig. 1B). The provenance of
the sample is without doubt: NRM inventories record
the specimen as coming from Drottningholm, originally from Seba’s cabinet, and it was mentioned by
Linnaeus (1764) in his published account of the King’s
collection.
Despite its importance as a syntype of E. maximus,
the species identity of the foetus has been questioned.
Sundevall (1857) and Lönnberg (1904) both believed
that, although it was labelled Elephas maximus, the
specimen was identifiable as an African elephant,
genus Loxodonta. Together with the African origin
for the specimen, noted by Seba (1734), this again
would suggest that E. maximus has a composite type
series.
Here, we sought to further resolve the identity of
the foetal syntype specimen of E. maximus. We used
ancient protein and DNA sequencing (see Methods) to
conclusively establish the taxonomic identity of Seba’s
elephant foetus as an African rather than an Asian
elephant. Second, in examining John Ray’s (1693)
text cited by Linnaeus, reporting the description of an
elephant skeleton, we found archival evidence indicating that this specimen still exists today in the
collection of the Natural History Museum of Florence.
Using morphological and molecular evidence, we
confirm that it is the skeleton of an Asian elephant
eligible for designation as the lectotype of E. maximus
Linnaeus.
METHODS
SAMPLING
The elephant foetus, kept in the collection of the
Swedish Museum of Natural History of Stockholm
(catalogue number NRM 532062), was gently removed
from its jar and laid on a tray. The specimen presented
an extended thoracic−abdominal longitudinal opening.
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
224
E. CAPPELLINI ET AL.
A
B
C
Figure 1. The elephant foetus, NRM 532062 from the Swedish Museum of Natural History, referred to by Linnaeus.
A, reproduction of the foetus illustration in Figure 1, Plate 111, vol. 1 of Albertus Seba’s ‘Locupletissimi rerum naturalium
thesauri accurata descriptio, et iconibus artificiosissimis expressio, per universam physices historiam . . .’ (1734). B, recent
photograph, and C, radiograph of the same specimen. Scale bar in panel B equals approximately 10 cm.
Operating through the opening, a small, approximately 5 × 5 × 3 mm, oesophagus fragment and the
terminal portion of a cartilaginous rib of similar size
were removed and transferred to Copenhagen for
ancient protein analysis. A second rib fragment was
collected and stored using the same procedure for
aDNA analysis in Stockholm.
SAMPLE
PREPARATION FOR PROTEIN SEQUENCING
For ancient protein analysis, oesophagus and rib
subsamples, of 64 and 39 mg (wet weight) respectively,
were cut in a chemical hood, on a sterile Petri dish,
using a single-use, disposable, sterile scalpel. A negative control containing no sample was prepared and
analysed following the same procedure used for the
ancient samples. Samples were dried in a centrifugal evaporator to remove residual ethanol. Tryptic
peptides were generated using a filter-aided sample
preparation protocol (Wisniewski et al., 2009). Protein
digestion was started by adding 4 μL 0.5 μg/μL
sequencing-grade trypsin solution (Promega) and incubating at 37 °C overnight at pH 7.50−8.00. Tryptic
peptides were then acidified with 10% trifluoroacetic
acid to a final concentration of 0.2−0.8% to reach a
pH < 2.00 and immobilized by C-18 solid phase extrac-
tion on Stage Tips (Rappsilber, Ishihama & Mann,
2003) as previously described (Cappellini et al., 2012).
NANOLC-ESI-HIGH
RESOLUTION TANDEM MASS
SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS
The liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry (LCMS) system consisted of an EASY-nLC system
(Thermo Scientific, Odense, Denmark) connected to a
Q Exactive mass spectrometer (Thermo Scientific,
Bremen, Germany) through a nano electrospray ion
(ESI) source. Five μL of each peptide sample were
auto-sampled onto and directly separated in a 15 cm
analytical column (75 μm inner diameter) in-house
packed with 3 μm C18 beads (Reprosil-AQ Pur, Dr.
Maisch), using a 130-min linear gradient from 5 to 26%
acetonitrile followed by a steeper linear 20-min gradient from 26 to 48% acetonitrile. Throughout the
gradients a fixed concentration of 0.5% acetic acid
and a flow rate of 250 nL min−1 were set. The effluent
from the high-performance LC was directly electrosprayed into the mass spectrometer by applying
2.0 kV through a platinum-based liquid-junction. The
settings used were as described for the ‘sensitive’
acquisition by Kelstrup et al. (2012). The mass spectrometry proteomics data have been deposited in the
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
TYPE MATERIAL OF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS
ProteomeXchange Consortium (http://proteomecentral
.proteomexchange.org) via the PRIDE partner repository (Vizcaíno et al., 2013) with the data set identifier
PXD000423.
SPECTRA
MATCHING
– MAXQUANT
SEARCH
Raw files of the two processed samples, generated
during spectra acquisition, were merged and searched
on a workstation [64523 tandem mass spectrometry
(MS/MS) spectra, 31561 and 32962 from oesophagus
and the rib samples, respectively, were submitted for
analysis] using the MaxQuant algorithm v. 1.2.2.5
(Cox & Mann, 2008) and the Andromeda peptide
search engine (Cox et al., 2011), initially against the
target/reverse protein list included in the L. africana
reference proteome (downloaded from UniProtKB,
www.uniprot.org, on 29 February 2012), and then, in
a separate search, against the complete list of proteins available on the same date in UniProtKB after
taxonomic restriction to E. maximus. In every search,
spectra were also matched against the common contaminants such as wool keratins and porcine trypsin,
downloaded from UniProt.
To identify more genus-diagnostic tryptic peptides,
we adopted a proteogenomics approach (Sanders
et al., 2011) that: (1) extracted, from the L. africana
genome (loxAfr3.67 downloaded from Ensembl
Genome Browser, www.ensembl.org), the DNA
sequences coding for the tryptic peptides confidently
identified by matching the spectra from the Seba
elephant against the African elephant reference
proteome; (2) extended for 120 bases each of the ends
of the identified coding regions; (3) assembled, if possible, the DNA sequences previously generated into
short contigs, to obtain the coding DNA sequence for
the ancient proteins identified on the basis of several
contiguous peptides; (4) mapped a set of shotgun
Illumina DNA reads, generated at the Roslin Institute
from two modern Asian elephants, against the
L. africana DNA extended reads and short contigs
coding the peptides identified in the Seba foetus;
and (5) filtered to retain alternate, homozygous,
nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms
(SNPs) in the positions coding for the ancient foetus
tryptic peptides, allowing us to identify which of the
peptides identified in the ancient sample had genusdiagnostic potential. Detailed description of this procedure is reported as Supporting Information S3.
IDENTIFICATION OF MODERN DNA SEQUENCES
LOXODONTA/ELEPHAS DIAGNOSTIC
PEPTIDES IDENTIFIED BY MASS SPECTROMETRY-BASED
CODING FOR THE
PROTEIN SEQUENCING
African savannah elephant sequences of HBB/D,
IARS, SPR, GSTP and COL6A3 (full names are listed
225
in Table 1) were identified in the National Center
for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Loxodonta
africana genome Trace Archives (http://www.ncbi
.nlm.nih.gov/Traces/home) using MegaBlast (Zhang
et al., 2000) and also NCBI GenBank entries
(COL6A3: XM_003417935, GSTP: XM_003419394,
IARS:
XM_003421084,
SPR:
XM_003413564,
HBB/D: XM_003421554). African savannah elephant
sequences were aligned with their Asian elephant
(E. maximus) homologues, obtained as described in
Supporting Information S3.5–6, and primers were
designed at conserved regions to amplify genusdiagnostic nonsynonymous codon mutations, using
the software PRIMER3 (http://fokker.wi.mit.edu/
primer3/input.htm; Rozen & Skaletsky, 2000). One or
two sets of primers were designed to amplify each
region (Supporting Information Table S3.4).
PCR and sequencing reactions were performed
using M13 tailed primers (M13 forward tail sequence
at the 5′ end of the forward primers and M13 reverse
tail sequence at the 5′ end of the reverse primers),
following the protocol by Ishida et al. (2011). Six
African savannah elephants, five African forest
elephants, and five Asian elephants were sequenced
for each of the five genes (Supporting Information
Table S3.5). Sequences were aligned to L. africana
predicted mRNA (GenBank numbers as above) and
the coding regions were translated using the ExPASytranslate tool (http://web.expasy.org/translate/; Artimo
et al., 2012) to identify and confirm genus-diagnostic
amino acid differences.
AMPLIFICATION
AND SEQUENCING OF MTDNA,
INCLUDING DIAGNOSTIC SITES DISTINGUISHING
LOXODONTA
FROM
ELEPHAS
Sequences of 4258 bp of mtDNA (from MT-ND5 to
control region) were aligned for 653 Loxodonta
(GenBank accession numbers: JQ438119–JQ438771;
Ishida et al., 2013) and 73 E. maximus (unpubl. data).
Three short regions that contained genus-diagnostic
nucleotide sites were identified, and primers were
designed with conserved sequences at 3′ ends, using
the software PRIMER3 (Supporting Information
Table S3.6; Rozen & Skaletsky, 2000).
In anticipation of their application to ancient DNA,
primers were tested using highly diluted modern
elephant DNA. Human genomic DNA was also tested
as a negative control to establish that primers would
not amplify human DNA, which sometimes may contaminate ancient samples. All work involving modern
DNA was performed at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, with primers ordered separately
for use by the ancient DNA laboratory (Ishida et al.,
2011).
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
DNA
ELEPHANT SAMPLES
4
5
G5E6U0
G3TBD6/
G3U3T4
NMMFQVLAAEEPTVR
VAPLQGVLPSLLAPLR
2
3
PEP, posterior error probability; aa, amino acid; *the corresponding Elephas-distinctive amino acid substitutions are reported in parentheses.
185 (V)
208 (M)
2
9
3.34E-05 119.01
3.44E-06 123.38
1734.843 2
1643.013 2,3
15
16
93 (A)
630 (M)
6
1
7.92E-12 141.46
0.003211 102.61
1712.858 2
1172.692 2
16
10
Glutathione S-transferase P-like
Isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase,
cytoplasmic
Sepiapterin reductase-like
Collagen alpha-3(VI)
52 (D)
7
7.35E-15 161.24
2132.033 2,3,4
19
Haemoglobin sub. Beta/Delta
FFEHFGDLSTAEAVLHNAK P02085/
Q45XJ0
EAALVDVVNDGVEDLR
G3TPD1
LYLINSPVVR
G3TAH7
mtDNA
SEBA AND FLORENCE
AMPLIFICATION AND SEQUENCING OF
FROM THE HISTORICAL
1
N Sequence
Accession
number
Protein name
Length Mass
(aa)
(Da)
Charges PEP
Genus-specific
MaxQuant Matched aa substitution
score
spectra
position*
E. CAPPELLINI ET AL.
Table 1. Genus-diagnostic tryptic peptides supporting the attribution of the ancient elephant foetus to Loxodonta. Genus-distinctive amino acids are in bold.
Their position refers to the protein sequence identified by the accession number reported.
226
Given the degraded nature of DNA in ancient specimens, pre-PCR laboratory work was performed in a
dedicated ancient DNA laboratory at the Swedish
Museum of Natural History (Stockholm). Negative
controls and repeated (once or more) amplification were used to minimize the effects of potential
contamination and to monitor damaged sites. DNA
extraction was performed on a small, approximately
5 × 5 × 3 mm, piece of soft-tissue from the elephant
foetus, using a QIAamp DNA micro kit (Qiagen) and
following the manufacturer’s protocol for isolation of
genomic DNA from tissues. To minimize alteration of
the ancient specimen, a bone microcore, 5 mm diameter, was collected from the left humerus of the Florence elephant skeleton using a dentist’s trephine
(Asa Dental, Italy). Approximately 100–200 mg of
bone powder obtained from the microcore were used
for DNA extraction, following a modified version of
protocol C in Yang et al. (1998). The extraction buffer
included 1 M urea instead of sodium dodecyl sulphate
and the post-lysis extraction buffer was concentrated
using a 30 K MWCO Vivaspin filter (Sartorius). Silica
spin columns were used for final DNA purification.
For the Seba elephant foetus, three pairs of
mitochondrial DNA primers mentioned above (Supporting Information Table S3.6) were used to amplify
DNA from the specimen. Additionally, two short fragments of the nuclear genes Biglycan (BGN) and
Phosphorylase kinase alpha subunit 2 (PHKA2) that
contain diagnostic sites that distinguish African forest
from African savannah elephants were also targeted,
using primer pairs BGN-s1F2/BGN-s1R2 and PHKs1F/PHK-s1R, respectively (Supporting Information
Table S3.7; Ishida et al., 2011). For PCR amplification
of these DNA fragments, the M13 tailed primers were
used to increase amplicon length and the quality of the
sequences (Supporting Information Table S3.7; Ishida
et al., 2011). We also included M13 tails in some of the
mitochondrial DNA primer pairs.
For the Florence skeleton, 741 bp of mitochondrial
DNA were amplified in seven overlapping fragments,
using primer pairs from Barnes et al. (2007). This
region includes the 3′ end of the cytochrome b gene
(MT-CYTB), two tRNA genes: mitochondrially encoded
tRNA threonine (MT-TT) and mitochondrially encoded
tRNA proline (MT-TP), and the first hypervariable part
of the control region (CR1).
PCR reactions had a final concentration of 1 × PCR
buffer, 0.2 μM of each primer, 200 μM deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates, 2.5 mM MgCl2, 0.1 mg mL−1
bovine serum albumin, 2 units HotStarTaq DNA polymerase (Qiagen), purified water, and 2 μL DNA extract
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
TYPE MATERIAL OF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS
in a total volume of 25 μL mix. PCR conditions
included an initial denaturation step of 10 min at
95 °C, followed by 55 cycles of denaturation of 30 s at
94 °C, annealing of 30 s at 50 or 52 °C (depending on
the primer pair; Supporting Information Tables S3.6,
S3.7), extension of 30 s at 72 °C, and a final extension
step of 7 min at 72 °C. Amplicons were purified with
Exonuclease I and FastAP Thermosensitive Alkaline
Phosphatase. Sequencing was performed in both
directions on an ABI3130xl (Applied Biosystems)
automated sequencer at the Molecular Systematics
Laboratory, at the Swedish Museum of Natural
History (Stockholm). Sequences were assembled in
GENEIOUS 5.0.1 (http://www.geneious.com).
MORPHOLOGY
OF
RESULTS
THE SEBA ELEPHANT
FOETUS
Morphological comparison of foetal organisms can be
challenging. Nevertheless, preliminary inspection suggested that the foetus could be assigned to Loxodonta,
based on comparatively large ears and two finger-like
processes on the tip of the trunk (Fig. 1B; Shoshani,
2000). X-ray images of the specimen (Fig. 1C) were also
taken to enable counting of the ribs and the thoracic,
lumbar, and caudal vertebrae, which differ in number
between African and Asian elephants (Shoshani,
2000). However, not all of these elements could be
individually distinguished on the X-ray images owing
to the incomplete development of the animal.
ANALYSIS
227
with start-end amino acid positions 41–59 in both
UniProt accessions P02085 and P02084, for L.
africana and E. maximus, respectively. This protein
had a putative genus-diagnostic amino acidic substitution at position 52, namely Glu (E) in the African
and Asp (D) in the Asian elephant. As the spectrum
reported in Figure 2 demonstrates, the assigned
peptide sequence clearly indicated that the Seba foetus
had the African elephant version of the peptide.
Parameters supporting the identification of the genusdiagnostic peptide and haemoglobin subunit Beta/
Delta are reported in Table 1 and Supporting
Information Table S3.8, respectively.
The proteogenomics approach returned four nonsynonymous SNPs falling within regions coding for the
peptides identified in the Seba elephant sample. At
each of the four additional genus-diagnostic peptides,
the Seba elephant matched Loxodonta and not
Elephas. Proteomics parameters supporting the identification of the additional four genus-diagnostic
peptides, and of the corresponding L. africana proteins
that they are part of, are reported in Tables 1 and S3.8,
respectively, whereas examples of their MS/MS spectra
are visible in Supporting Information Figures S3.1–4.
PCR-amplification and Sanger-sequencing of the
DNA regions coding for the five genus-diagnostic
tryptic peptides identified in the elephant foetus,
applied to 16 modern elephant individuals of diverse
geographical provenance, confirmed the Loxodonta/
Elephas diagnostic capacity of these peptides (Supporting Information Table S3.5).
OF ANCIENT PROTEINS
To resolve the identity of the Seba elephant foetus, we
analysed DNA and sequenced proteins (Cappellini
et al., 2012) using a shotgun proteomics approach from
a small section of the oesophagus and the terminal
portion of a cartilaginous rib. Nano-liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution MS/MS was used
to generate a spectra data set from tryptic peptides
and identify, as genus-diagnostic markers, the nonidentical homologous ones present in publicly available protein lists for both elephant genera. The total
mass of proteins recovered before digestion was 126
and 90 μg, whereas after digestion it was 72 and 60 μg,
for oesophagus and rib extracts, respectively. However,
as the nuclear genome of E. maximus was not publicly
available at the time of analysis, and the list of publicly
available protein sequences from this species is
quite limited, at only c. 200, only seven proteins and
48 peptides identified in the Seba elephant sample
were available for both L. africana and E. maximus.
Despite such a limited set of homologous proteins and
peptides, we did nevertheless identify one variable
tryptic peptide from haemoglobin subunit Beta/Delta
(Opazo et al., 2009): FFEHFGDLSTAE52AVLHNAK,
ANCIENT DNA
ANALYSIS
Three regions of mtDNA were successfully amplified
and sequenced for the Seba foetal elephant specimen,
using primer pairs Ele-ND5-F1/R1, Ele-ND5-F3/R3,
and Ele-cytB-1/R1. The three sequences were compared to Loxodonta and Elephas sequences. All diagnostic sites matched Loxodonta and not Elephas
sequences. Two of the Seba elephant mtDNA fragment sequences (Ele-ND5-F1/R1 and Ele-ND5-F3/R3)
included a site diagnostic for the west-central
subclade, and matched the character state present
in the west-central subclade at all informative sites
(Supporting Information Table S3.9; Ishida et al.,
2013). By contrast, three to six character state mismatches separated the Seba foetus sequence from the
seven other major mtDNA subclades identified in
African elephants (Ishida et al., 2013). The geographical distribution of this subclade notably corresponds
to the west-central region of Africa in which the
Dutch West India Company had conducted its African
operations since the first half of the 17th century.
Identification of the species of the elephant foetus as
African savannah or African forest elephant was not
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
Figure 2. Tandem mass spectrum, generated from the analysis of the Seba elephant foetus sample, supporting identification of the Loxodonta version of the
genus-diagnostic tryptic peptide F41FEHFGDLSTAE52AVLHNAK59, from haemoglobin subunit Beta/Delta, (UniProt accession number: P02085). Δm zb12 − b11 and
Δm zy8 − y7 = 129.043 support the presence of Glu in position 52. Peaks in the spectrum indicate the detected mass-to-charge ratios of peptide fragmentation
products. Peaks that support assignment of the spectrum to the amino acidic sequence in the figure are colored (blue and red indicate b- and y-series fragments,
respectively). Resulting fragmentation pattern is overlaid on the sequence.
228
E. CAPPELLINI ET AL.
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
TYPE MATERIAL OF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS
229
Figure 3. A, elephant skeleton MZUF-734 at the Natural History Museum of the University of Florence. B, drawing by
Stefano Della Bella: ‘Elephant died in Florence on November 9th 1655’, inset (translation from Italian by E.C.). Anatomical
and mounting evidence in support of the specimen’s identity, genus, sex, and age as presented in the text: C, sternum wooden
replica; D, cranium; E, molar teeth; F, vestigial tusks; G, pelvis. Scale bar in panel A, in white, equals approximately 50 cm.
possible because nuclear loci could not be sequenced
(Ishida et al., 2011). Despite the short length of target amplicons and attempts to optimize the PCR
reactions/conditions, the degraded DNA of the foetus
failed to amplify for two nuclear loci with sites diagnostic between forest and savannah elephants.
IDENTIFICATION
OF A LECTOTYPE
Having established that the Seba foetus was
Loxodonta, we exhaustively scrutinized the references cited by Linnaeus (1758). In one of these references, John Ray’s ‘Synopsis Methodica Animalium
Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis’ (1693: 131), we
found a detailed description of the skeleton of an
elephant that Ray had observed while visiting
Florence between 14 July and 1 September 1664
(Supporting Information S4). His description (Supporting Information S5), and that of his travelling
companion Phillip Skippon (1732), do not contain
information sufficient to identify the specimen as
either Asian or African elephant. However, anatomical
details, together with other historical sources, clearly
indicate that the skeleton is the one still on display
at the Natural History Museum of the University
of Florence (Fig. 3A). Records indicate that these
remains belong to an elephant that died in Florence on
9 November 1655 (Supporting Information S6), as
reported in a drawing by the artist Stefano Della Bella
(Fig. 3B). This was probably the itinerant performing
elephant known as ‘Hansken’, born in Ceylon (today
Sri Lanka), and portrayed in 1637 by the Dutch artist
Rembrandt van Rijn (Supporting Information S7;
Slatkes, 1980). After dissection, the skeleton was
mounted and exhibited in a room at the Uffizi Gallery
(Targioni Tozzetti, 1780) until, in September 1771 the
Grand Duke of Tuscany ordered the relocation of
all specimens of scientific interest into the newly
constituted Museum of Physics and Natural History,
now Natural History Museum. The continuous presence of the elephant remains at the Uffizi Gallery
first, then at the Natural History Museum, is documented by several bibliographical sources (Ray, 1673,
1693; Skippon, 1732) and museum inventories (Supporting Information S6). In addition, the current
wooden replica of the sternum (Fig. 3C) conforms
to Ray’s indication that this element was missing,
whereas further anatomical peculiarities mentioned
by Skippon (1732) can be observed today in the
Florence skeleton: fusion of the second and third
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
230
E. CAPPELLINI ET AL.
cervical vertebrae, and fusion of the spinous processes
of 18th and 19th dorsal vertebrae.
Morphologically, the skeleton is clearly that of an
Asian elephant. Features include the high cranial apex
with a double parietal dome (Fig. 3D), and the characteristic form of the enamel loops of the molars, all in
distinction to Loxodonta (Shoshani, 2000). The jaws
preserve the second molars (M2) in wear and the third
(M3) close to eruption (M5−6 of some authors), indicating (Fig. 3E) an adult animal of c. 25–30 years at
death (Roth & Shoshani, 1988). The specimen’s relatively small size (shoulder height c. 230 cm), vestigial
tusks − tushes − (Fig. 3F), and wide pelvic aperture
(Fig. 3G), indicate that the individual was female
(Lister, 1996).
Analysis of a 741-bp region of mitochondrial
sequence (using DNA derived from a small fragment
of the left humerus) also confirmed the identity of the
Florence specimen as E. maximus. The sequence was
a novel haplotype, closest to the previously reported
haplotype BP (= MDL2), from which it differed at one
nucleotide site (Vidya, Sukumar & Melnick, 2009;
Lei et al., 2012). Although particularly common in Sri
Lanka, haplotype BP is found widely across Asia.
Thus, further resolution of the specimen’s geographical origin was not possible with current molecular
data, but for nomenclatural stability, the type locality
of E. maximus should continue to be understood to be
the island of Ceylon (‘Zeylonae’ of Linnaeus, 1758).
CONCLUSION
We established that the Seba foetus was Loxodonta,
and thus that Linnaeus’s original conception of the
taxon E. maximus is composite. Consequently, designation of a lectotype as the single name-bearing
specimen is necessary to fix the identity of the
species for all future work on its biology, phylogeny,
and conservation.
Exhaustive examination of references cited by
Linnaeus (1758) led us to a detailed description of the
skeleton of an elephant in Florence. We identified
the described skeleton as corresponding to an extant
specimen that proved to be on display at the Natural
History Museum of the University of Florence, and
which both morphological and ancient DNA identified
as an Asian elephant.
Based on this evidence, and in conformity with
Article 74.7 of the ICZN, we hereby designate the
elephant skeleton in Florence, catalogue no. MZUF734, as the lectotype of E. maximus Linnaeus, 1758,
to preserve the traditional understanding and application of this name to the Asian elephant. Not only
was it amongst the type series but its anatomical
completeness makes it a suitable name-bearing speci-
men from the original type series for this iconic
mammal (Supporting Information S8).
This resolution of nomenclatural inconsistencies
was made possible, 320 years after the first published
description of the hereby designated lectotype specimen and 255 years after the naming of the species, by
integrating state-of-the-art experimental research,
based on high-throughput ancient protein and DNA
sequencing, and investigation of the historical literature, streamlined by digitalization and online availability of historical texts. The electronic version of
this article, published online ahead of print, is registered in the ZooBank database (zoobank.org) with the
following LSID: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:1E9CC99D6037-41DA-AFE0-EB9BDF603749.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Tim Bouts (Al
Wabra Wildlife Preservation, Qatar), Falko Steinbach
and Akbar Dastjerdi (Animal Health Veterinary
Laboratories Agency, UK), and Stephanie Sanderson
(Chester Zoo) for helping generate the Asian elephant
genomic DNA; Aurélien Ginolhac (Centre for
GeoGenetics) for help in mapping high-throughput
DNA data; Marie-Louise Kampmann and Luise
Ørsted Brandt (Centre for GeoGenetics) for help in
sample preparation; Hannes Schroeder (Centre for
GeoGenetics) for translation from German; Marco
Ferretti (University of Florence) for providing information and photographs of the Florence skeleton;
Parc Zoologique de Paris-Vincennes, France, National
Zoological Park, Fort Worth Zoo, Oregon Zoo, St.
Louis Zoo, Ringling Brothers, Florida, for providing zoo elephant samples; Nicholas J. Georgiadis
(University of Washington) and the governments of
Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon,
Kenya, Republic of the Congo, South Africa, and Tanzania for providing modern African elephant samples.
The photos in Figures 1 and S8.1 were taken by
Harry Taylor (NHM, London) and the X-ray by Peter
Mortensen (NRM, Stockholm). Photos in Figure 3
were taken by Saulo Bambi (Florence University).
The original drawing by Stefano Della Bella: ‘Elefante
morto in Firenze nel 1655’, Catalogo Bertini 545,
reported in Figure 3B, is part of the collection of the
Royal Library of Turin, Italy. Its reproduction was
kindly authorized by the ‘Ministero per i Beni e le
Attività Culturali, Direzione Regionale per i Beni
Culturali e Paesaggistici del Piemonte – Biblioteca
Reale di Torino’, prot. n. 0002234. Y. I. and A. R. were
supported by the US Fish and Wildlife Service African
Elephant Conservation Fund Grant AFE-0778F12AP01143. This study was funded by the Danish
Independent Research Council ‘Sapere Aude’ and
Danish Basic Research Foundation ‘GeoGenetics’
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232
TYPE MATERIAL OF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS
DNRF94 grants and the Swedish Research Council.
A. G. thanks the European Commission for three
grants, originally the High Lat Scheme and now
Synthesys (grant no. SE-TAF 1173).
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher’s web-site:
S1. Iconography of the sources, other than Seba and Ray, cited by Linnaeus (1758) in the description of Elephas
maximus.
Figure S1.1. Gesner, C. 1551. Historiae Animalium Lib. 1 de quadrupedibus viviparis. [39], 1104. [11]
pp. Froschover, Zurich.
Figure S1.2. Aldrovandi, U. 1616. De quadrupedibus solidipedibus volumen integrum. 495 pp. Bologna.
Figure S1.3. Jonston, J. 1650. Historiae naturalis de quadrupedibus liber 1. De quadrupedibus Solipedibus.
231 pp., 80 pls. Marianus, Frankfurt.
S2. Albertus Seba, his collection and the fate of his elephant foetus.
S3. Ancient protein sequencing and identification of genus-diagnostic peptides: materials and methods.
Figure S3.1. Tandem spectrum, generated by nanoLC-MS/MS analysis of the ancient foetus sample, supporting
identification of the L. africana version of the genus-diagnostic tryptic peptide E86AALVDVV93NDGVEDLR101.
Figure S3.2. Tandem spectrum, generated from the analysis of the Seba elephant sample, supporting
identification of the L. africana version of the genus-diagnostic tryptic peptide L627YLI630NSPVVR636.
Figure S3.3. Tandem spectrum, generated from the analysis of the Seba elephant sample, supporting identification of the L. africana version of the genus-diagnostic tryptic peptide N184M185MFQVLAAEEPTVR198.
Figure S3.4. Tandem spectrum, generated from the analysis of the Seba elephant sample, supporting identification of the L. africana version of the genus-diagnostic tryptic peptide V202APLQGV208LPSLLAPLR217.
Table S3.1. Protein recoveries, before and after digestion, for each of the two Seba foetus extracted samples.
Table S3.2. Statistics for MaxQuant MS/MS spectra matching against the Loxodonta africana reference proteome.
Table S3.3. Statistics for MaxQuant MS/MS spectrometry spectra matching against the Elephas maximus
complete protein list.
Table S3.4. Primer sets used to amplify Loxodonta/Elephas DNA regions coding for genus-diagnostic peptides.
Table S3.5. Variable and diagnostic sites across geographically diverse Asian, African forest and African
savannah elephants.
Table S3.6. Primers used to amplify Loxodonta/Elephas diagnostic sites in mitochondrial DNA.
Table S3.7. PCR primers and M13 tails used in this study to attempt amplification of nuclear nucleotide sites
diagnostic between African forest and African savannah elephants (Ishida et al., 2011).
Table S3.8. Evidence supporting the identities of proteins bearing genus-diagnostic tryptic peptides.
Table S3.9. Clade-informative sites overlapping mtDNA sequences generated for the Seba elephant foetus.
S4. John Ray and his tour across part of Europe.
S5. Translation of Ray’s Latin text mentioning the elephant he observed in Florence.
S6. Reconstruction of the fate of the Florence elephant.
Table S6.1. Inventory numbers documenting the presence of the elephant skeleton observed by John Ray in the
Florence Royal Museum since the end of the 18th century.
Table S6.2. Comparison of the measures of the elephant skeleton reported by Targioni Tozzetti (1763) and those
of specimen 734 as measurable today.
S7. Possible identification of the Florence elephant as the performing itinerant elephant known as ‘Hansken’.
Figure S7.1. Rembrandt, An elephant, 1637 (drawing). Vienna, Albertina.
S8. Another extant syntype specimen of Elephas maximus: a partial elephant tooth in Uppsala.
Figure S8.1. Elephas maximus molar fragment (catalogue number UUZM 370) in the Uppsala University
Zoological Museum collection.
© 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 170, 222–232