Download Communication

Topic
1
Communication:
An Overview
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what is meant by communication;
2. List the main types of communication;
3. Describe three models of communication; and
4. Explain the different forms that oral communication can take.
INTRODUCTION
This topic aims to give you an overview of communication in general. It
highlights different definitions of communication as offered by experts in the
field. The topic also touches on types and models of communication. It then
zooms in on oral communication, in particular, the forms it normally takes.
Figure 1.1: Even
babies communicate
Source health-inaction.org
Why do we need to study communication? From the
time we were born, we communicated with the world
(Figure 1.1). Even as babies, we babbled, cried, screamed
and gurgled our way into our parentsÊ hearts. Then, as we
grew up, we learnt words and began to communicate
through language. Communication comes naturally to
most of us except those who are physically challenged.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
2
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
Communication, just like love, makes the world go round. Studying about
communication enables us to improve our skills at interacting with people.
Professionally, people who are good communicators tend to do better in their
careers. The good news is, effective communication is a skill that can be acquired
if you make an effort to study the fundamentals of communication theories and
principles.
1.1
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Communication is an essential part of our lives. We communicate everyday
with different people, at different times, in different ways. We communicate with
ourselves in our thoughts. We also communicate with our family, friends, people
at work, and people we meet, socially or professionally. At times, we may even
need to communicate with a larger audience such as members of the public.
Now, put on your thinking cap. Before looking at what experts have to say about
communication, try and formulate some ideas about the nature of communication
by drawing upon your prior knowledge. Reflect on these questions:
(a)
What do you think communication is?
(b)
Is it something static or does it involve a process?
(c)
What happens during communication?
(d)
Can a person communicate with himself?
(e)
How many people does it take to communicate?
(f)
In what ways can you communicate with another?
(g)
Are geographical boundaries barriers to communication?
(h)
How does information technology affect the nature of communication?
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Respond to each of the following statements with Y (yes) if you agree
with it or N (no) if you disagree.
_______1.
Communication can involve only one person.
_______2.
Communication involves two or more people.
_______3.
In order for communication to take place, there must be a
source (or speaker) and a receiver (or listener).
_______4.
In a communication act, the speaker can become the
listener and the listener, the speaker.
_______5.
You can communicate by speaking, writing letters or
memos, sending faxes and e-mails.
_______6.
You can communicate via facial expressions and body
movements.
_______7.
You can communicate without having to be physically
present in a particular country.
The answers to all of these statements should be „Yes‰. Read on to find out more.
1.1.1
Defining Communication
Carl Rogers (1952) (Figure 1.2) says that:
„Real communication occurs ... when we listen with understanding to see the
expressed idea and attitude from the other personÊs point of view, to sense how it
feels to him, to achieve his frame of reference in regard to the things he is talking
about.‰
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
4
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
This is particularly apt in the case of oral communication as oral communication
is not just speaking and articulating your thoughts well but also involves
listening to what has been said and interpreting the message accurately as
intended by the speaker.
Figure 1.2: Carl Rogers
Source: psychology4a.com
Elizabeth Tierney (1998) describes communication as a process which begins
when you have a message that you want to deliver to an audience. Your
audience receives the message, reacts to it and then responds to your message.
That response may lead you to react and give another message. This process may
then go on and on.
The message can be anything that you wish to communicate to an audience. It
may be an idea, a thought or a feeling that you wish to share with someone else.
It can range from a simple greeting to a friend to a lengthy report at a formal
meeting where many people may be present. What is important is that there is a
sender and a receiver of the message.
According to Julia T. Wood (2009), „Communication is a systemic process in
which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret
meanings.‰
The key terms in this definition are:
(a)
Process
it is ongoing, continuous and always changing.
(b)
Systemic It happens within a system of interconnected parts that affect
each other.
(c)
Symbols These are what people use to represent things e.g. all language,
non-verbal behaviours, art, and music.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
(d)
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
5
Meanings Any act of communication involves two essential aspects the
literal message and the relationship between those who communicate with
each other.
Joseph Devito (2009) says that:
„Communication occurs when one person (or more) sends and receives messages
that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some effect, and provide
some opportunity for feedback.‰
He lists six elements which are present in all communication acts.
(a)
Context
All communication takes place within a context that includes at least four
sub-contexts:
(i)
Physical
The real environment in which communication takes place, e.g. a
classroom, lecture hall, office, a public place.
(ii)
Social-psychological
For example, the status/relationship among the senders and receivers,
the roles and communication games that people play, cultural rules
and the friendliness/unfriendliness or formality/informality of the
situation.
(iii) Temporal
The time context in which communication takes place like the time of
day or night, as well as historical time, e.g. 20th or 21st century.
(iv) Cultural
The values, behaviour and beliefs of the society.
(b)
Source-receiver
There is a source (speaker) and a receiver (listener). You send a message
whenever you speak, write, gesture or smile. You receive a message when
you listen, read or smell something. As you send, you are also receiving
your own message, e.g. you can hear yourself talk and move. At the same
time, you are also receiving the messages sent by the other person.
(c)
Message/s
May be verbal or non-verbal.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
6
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
(d)
Channels
This refers to the medium through which the communication passes vocal
(speech), visual (gestures, words, pictures), olfactory (smells), and tactile
(touch).
(e)
Noise
Anything that interferes with you receiving a message.
(f)
Effect/s
Communication affects people in many ways intellectual effects (changes
in thinking), affective effects (changes in attitudes) and psychomotor effects
(changes in behaviour).
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Give four definitions of communication.
2. Based on any one of these definitions, briefly describe (from real
life) an example of a communication experience that has taken
place.
1.1.2
Types of Communication
According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are three types of communication:
(a)
Oral Communication
In oral communication, information, thoughts and ideas are conveyed via a
spoken language (see Figure 1.3). Basically, this takes place in the following
ways:
(i)
Face-to-face conversations;
(ii)
Meetings;
(iii) Voice mail messages;
(iv) Teleconferencing;
(v)
Oral presentations; and
(vi) Public speaking.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
7
Very often, spoken messages are sent very quickly and feedback received
almost immediately. However, there is little or no chance to reflect on what
is said.
Figure 1.3: Oral communication
Source: 4-hontario.ca
(b)
Written Communication
In written communication, we exchange information using the written language,
that is, words and sentences (refer to Figure 1.4). This can take place via:
(i)
Letters;
(ii)
Faxes;
(iii) Memos;
(iv) E-mail;
(v)
Reports;
(vi) Minutes of meetings;
Figure 1.4: Written communication
Source: a08.ngu.edu
(vii) Tables;
(viii) Diagrams;
(ix) News releases;
(x)
Charts; and
(xi) Graphs;
Written communication provides documentation and proof of the exchange
of information. The drawback is that immediate feedback is not always
possible.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
8
(c)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
Non-verbal Communication
In non-verbal communication, no words are used (refer to Figure 1.5).
Feelings are expressed and conveyed through facial expressions, gestures
and body movements. A certain look or gesture can speak a thousand
words. Non-verbal communication, also known as body language, can be a
very powerful form of communication and often includes the following
(Camp & Satterwhite, 2002):
(i)
Appearance;
(ii)
Posture;
(iii) Eye contact;
(iv) Nervousness;
(v)
Grooming; and
(vi) Dressing.
Figure 1.5: Non-verbal communication
Source: grahamwatsondesign.com
In face-to-face interactions, oral communication often goes hand-in-hand
with non-verbal communication. Effective communicators combine these
two modes of communication to reinforce their message.
Body language can be very powerful in supporting what you say. For
example, when you thank somebody, a grateful look will re-inforce your
feelings very strongly. Likewise, you may tell your boss that you are not
tired but your body language betrays you if you keep on nodding and
falling asleep.
ACTIVITY 1.2
In the scenarios below, what type of communication would you use?
State the reason for your choice. Jot down your answers in a notebook
and discuss these during your next tutorial session.
1. You receive a message on your telephone answering machine,
asking you to call up a client to set an appointment to meet him.
2. You need to make a speech on „Helping Needy Students‰ at a
Parent-Teachers Association meeting in a school.
3. You are at a television studio. You receive a message on your
handphone to go to the next room immediately to appear on a live
international television show.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
1.1.3
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
9
The Purposes of Communication
According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are four main purposes in
communication:
(a)
To inquire
This involves obtaining information in various ways, for
instance, by asking questions or through formulating questionnaires.
(b)
To inform This entails the dissemination of information using different
channels of communication.
(c)
To persuade This aims to influence people and bring them round to your
way of thinking.
(d)
To develop goodwill This involves maintaining and forming cordial and
harmonious relationships with people you are communicating.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Differentiate between to inquire, to inform, to persuade and to
develop goodwill.
2. In your opinion, which of the purposes of communication
mentioned above is the most prevalent in your workplace? Give
reasons for your answer.
1.2
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:
(a)
Linear model;
(b)
Interactive model; and
(c)
Transactional model.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
10
1.2.1
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
Linear Model
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which
the speaker speaks and the listener listens. LaswellÊs (1948) model was based on
the five questions below, which effectively describe how communication works:
Shannon and WeaverÊs (1949) model includes noise or interferences that distort
understanding between the speaker and the listener. Figure 1.6 shows a linear
model of communication.
Figure 1.6: A linear model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth.
1.2.2
Interactive Model
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way
process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners
listen and never speak or send messages.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
11
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw
the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker
or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or
listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each
other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they
have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap (see Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.7: An interactive model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth.
1.2.3
Transactional Model
The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that
communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model
also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over
time.
The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are
interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a
listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
12
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
There are three implications in the transactional model:
(a)
„Transactional‰ means that communication is an ongoing and continuously
changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are
communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually
changing as well.
(b)
In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other
elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source
without a receiver and no message without a source.
(c)
Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors
such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and
self-esteem.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Briefly describe the main features of the following models of
communication:
(a)
Linear model.
(b)
Interactive model.
(c)
Transactional model.
Figure 1.8 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account
„noise‰ or interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer
lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both
communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or
personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account
changes that happen in the communicatorsÊ fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as
receiver simultaneously.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
13
Figure 1.8: A transactional model of communication
Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: ThomsonWadsworth.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Using the models described in this topic, analyse the communication
that takes place in your family. Which model best reflects the
communication between family members?
Jot down notes and present your analysis to your tutorial group
members when you next meet. You may want to show pictures of your
family members when you make your presentation.
1.3
FORMS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication has been described as the process of people using verbal
and non-verbal messages to generate meanings within and across various
contexts, cultures, channels and media. It encompasses various sets of skills
including the ability to speak coherently and persuasively, understanding of
communication theory and processess, knowledge of verbal and non-verbal cues,
audience analysis, listening skills as well as communication ethics.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
14
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
In this section, we will describe seven forms of oral communication:
(a)
Intrapersonal communication;
(b)
Interpersonal communication;
(c)
Small group communication;
(d)
Public communication;
(e)
Mass communication;
(f)
Corporate communication; and
(g)
Intercultural communication.
1.3.1
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with
yourself under certain circumstances for example, when you need to make an
important decision or learn something about yourself. You may wonder whether
intrapersonal communication is just another way of describing the thinking
process. In a way, that would be correct.
Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which
relies on language to express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean „soliloquy‰
where the character in question engages in self-talk to reflect on events that have
transpired (see Figure 1.9). Intrapersonal communication often increases selfawareness and mindfulness, and hones critical thinking skills.
Figure 1.9: Shakespearean soliloquy
Source: literaryzone.com
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
1.3.2
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
15
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is communication between several people. This
form of communication may range from the impersonal to the very personal.
Impersonal communication is when you talk with a person you do not really care
about there is often a coldness or an indifference in your attitude when you
engage in this kind of communication.
Then, there is social communication where you engage in niceties with people
you meet in a social context. The most personal type of communication occurs
when you talk with people who are close to you, for example, your best friend,
family members and colleagues. Such relationships are interdependent, meaning
that the actions of one party very often directly affects the other party.
Interpersonal communication can take place face to face as well as through
electronic channels like video-conferencing, chat rooms, e-mail and Twitter.
1.3.3
Small Group Communication
Small group communication takes place in a group,
usually comprising five to 10 people. This form of
communication serves relationship needs (like
companionship, family bonding and affection or
support) as well as task-based needs, for example,
deciding on disciplinary action or resolving conflict in
the workplace.
Figure 1.10: Small group
In academic institutions, students often form small
communication
groups which meet regularly for study discussions or
Source: csus.edu
to work collaboratively on projects. At the workplace,
small groups may meet to discuss issues related to work, or for problem-solving
or team-building purposes. Learning to communicate effectively in teams
contributes to success and advancement in many careers. Small group
communication allows you to interact with others, be it at home, in school, at the
workplace or in public. You learn to exchange ideas, solve problems and share
experiences.
1.3.4
Public Communication
Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication
between a speaker and an audience. This audience may range from just a few
people to thousands or even millions of people. The aim of the speaker is usually
to inform or to persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a certain way. A
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
16
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
teacher may address an assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school
rules. A politician may make speeches on how he will be dealing with certain
issues in order to win their votes. An executive may give a business presentation
to get more sales. It is important to understand some of the basic principles of
effective public speaking so that you are able to influence, persuade as well as
entertain your audience when you communicate with them.
1.3.5
Mass Communication
Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many
receivers all over the world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos
and television. Modern avenues of mass communication like the Internet and
blogs can be very powerful indeed as information is disseminated instantly.
1.3.6
Corporate Communication
Corporate communication is communication that takes place among members of
an organisation, within that organisation. Interacting in teams, conferencing with
co-workers, talking with a supervisor or manager, giving employees explanations
and directions, interviewing and making presentations are some examples of
corporate communication. Effective corporate communication skills enhance
corporate image and impact positively on morale, commitment, and productivity
in corporations.
1.3.7
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication is communication between people of diverse
cultures and ethnicities. The world is increasingly becoming a global village and
every country has people of various ethnicities. Thus, it is important to note
differences in the communication practices of different cultures if intercultural
harmony, as well as understanding is to be maintained. For example, in many
Asian countries, students will seldom contradict or disagree with a teacher in the
classroom as this shows disrespect. In Western academic institutions, however, it
is the norm for students to think for themselves and engage their teachers in
debate and discussion. It is important to make efforts to recognise and respect the
communication practices of people from different cultures and nationalities.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
17
SELF-CHECK 1.4
Describe the different forms of communication below:
1. Intrapersonal communication
2. Interpersonal communication
3. Small group communication
4. Public communication
5. Mass communication
6. Corporate communication
7. Intercultural communication
ACTIVITY 1.4
Audio 1.1: Forms of Communication
Listen carefully to each of the five conversations in the audio provided.
Identify the form of communication that is taking place. Write down
your answers in the space provided next to the numbered dialogue.
Choose from the suggested answers below:
Intrapersonal
Public
Mass
Interpersonal
Small group
Corporate
Intercultural
Dialogue 1: _____________
Dialogue 2: _____________
Dialogue 3: _____________
Dialogue 4: _____________
Dialogue 5: _____________
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
18
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
There are many definitions of communication.
Carl Rogers (1952) defined communication as listening with
understanding to what has been said and interpreting the message
accurately as intended by the speaker.
Elizabeth Tierney (1998) defined it as a process which comprises the
following steps you have a message you want to deliver, you send it
out, your audience receives the message, reacts to it and then responds to
your message.
Julia Wood (2009) defined it as a systemic process in which people
interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.
Devito (2009) said that communication occurs when one person (or more)
sends and receives messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a
context, have some effect, and provide some opportunities for feedback.
The linear model of communication views communication as a one-way or
linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens.
The interactive model views communication as a process in which the
speaker and listener take turns speaking, listening and giving feedback to
each other.
The transactional model views communication as an ongoing and
continuously changing process which takes into consideration the effects of
noise, time, and systems. In this model, communicators can send and receive
messages simultaneously.
Oral communication can be in the form of intrapersonal, interpersonal, small
group, public, mass, corporate, and intercultural communication.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1
COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
Corporate communication
Non-verbal communication
Feedback
Oral communication
Interactive Model
Public communication
Intercultural communication
Receiver
Interpersonal communication
Small group communication
Intrapersonal communication
Source
Linear Model
Speaker
Mass communication
Symbols
Message
Systemic process
Noise
Transactional Model
19
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)